Abstract
Irrigation is a key factor in plant production systems. However, excessive and inappropriate water and soil management systems can cause significant environmental problems. The GAP (the Southeastern Anatolia Project, SEAP) is a multisectoral integrated regional development project. It aims to improve the economical and social welfare of the region as best as possible. The two main objectives of the GAP project include irrigation and energy production. Irrigation was introduced to the Harran plain in 1995, and it led to significant changes in the land use patterns. The use of high-yielding crop varieties and chemical inputs (fertilizers and pesticide usage) resulted in important increases in plant production. Conversely, there was also an increase in land mismanagement. This included practices such as excessive irrigation, intensive soil tillage, insufficient carbon, and soil nutrient cycling. These mismanagement practices lead to soil degradation, which in turn causes increased salinity in soil and groundwater, sediment and nutrient transportation with runoffs, soil erosion, contamination of surfaces and subsurface water sources with nitrates and pesticides, and greenhouse gas emissions. In order to balance yield losses due to the decreasing soil quality, fertilizers and other chemicals were used extensively. This considerably contributed to the environmental problems. Additionally, increasing welfare and population propagated urbanization on arable lands, i.e., the construction of houses, factories, and other agricultural facilities. This further degraded the land and the environment. In conclusion, land irrigation led to production increases, but at the expense of degradation in the environment and soil quality. Moreover, land degradation occurred and further degraded the environment. It is extremely important to improve soil and water management in order to minimize these impacts. The forementioned problems could be solved by improving irrigation efficiencies, good soil and water management strategies, formation of modern well-managed irrigation districts, and educating farmers. Agricultural subsidy-based sanctions could enable these solutions. This study used archived data and evaluations of earlier studies to examine important agroenvironmental influences of introducing irrigation in the Harran plain.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Atasoy, A. D., & Yesilnacar, M. I. (2010). Groundwater pollution due to agricultural practices in a semiarid area. In D. M. Carrey (Ed.), Water recycling and water management (pp. 161–180). New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc..
Atasoy, A. D., Mermut, A. R., & Yesilnacar, M. I. (2012). Assessing the endosulfan contamination in an unconfined aquifer. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 88, 219–225.
Aydemir, S., & Sönmez, O. (2008). Ameliorative effect of indigenous calcite on sodium-saturated clay sytems. Soil Science, 173, 96–107.
Aydemir, S., Polat, T., Çullu, M.A., Kaya, C., Sönmez, O., et al. (2009). Adaptation of halophytes and glikofit forage crops in the Harran plain saline soils and remediative impacts of soil physico-chemical properties (in Turkish). TÜBİTAK (Project No:106O145).
Aydoğdu, M., Aydoğdu, M. H., & Çullu, M. A. (2014). The impact determination on cotton yields of soils which have different salt levels and its relation with satelliete data (Sanliurfa Imambakir Harran Plain Irrigation Association). Turkish Studies, 9, 231–250.
Bahçeci, İ., & Nacar, A. S. (2009). Subsurface drainage and salt leaching in irrigated land in south-east Turkey. Irrigation and Drainage, 58, 346–356.
Bahçeci, İ., Çakır, R., Nacar, A. S., & Bahçeci, P. (2008). Estimating the effect of controlled drainage on soil salinity and irrigation efficiency in the Harran plain using SaltMod. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 32, 101–109.
Bilgiç, C. (2014). Determination of losses of some plant nutrients in free flow drainage systems in the Harran plain. (in Turkish), (master thesis).Şanlıurfa: Harran University, Graduate School of Applied Sciences.
Bilgili, A. V. (2013). Spatial assessment of soil salinity in the Harran plain using multiple kriging techniques. Environmental Monitoring and Asssessment, 185, 777–795.
Bilgili, A. V., Cullu, M. A., van Es, H., Aydemir, A., & Aydemir, S. (2011). The use of hyperspectral visible and near infrared reflectance spectroscopy for the characterization of salt-affected soils in the Harran plain, Turkey. Arid Land Research and Management, 25, 19–37.
Bilgili, A. V., Aydemir, A., Sönmez, O., & Çullu, M. A. (2013). Comparison of three laboratory and regression kriging method for quantitative and qualitative assessment of soil salinity in the Harran plain, SE Turkey. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 22, 1339–1350.
Bilgili, A. V., Küçük, Ç., & Van Es, H. M. (2017). Assessment of the quality of the Harran plain soils under long-term cultivation. Environmental Monitoring and Asssessment, 189, 460–475.
Çelik, M. A., & Gülersoy, A. E. (2013). An examination of the effects of Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) on agriculture patterns changes using remote sensing. The Journal of International Social Research, 6, 46–54.
Çullu, M. A. (2003). Estimation of the effect of soil salinity on crop yield using remote sensing and geographic information system. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 27, 23–28.
Çullu, M. A., Almaca, A., Sahin, Y., & Aydemir, S. (2002). Application of GIS for monitoring salinization in the Harran plain, Turkey. In K. Haktanır (Ed.) International Conference on Sustainable Land Use and Management (pp. 326–331). Çanakkale, Turkey.
Çullu, M. A., Aydemir, S., Qadir, M., Almaca, A., Öztürkmen, A. R., Bilgiç, A., & Ağca, N. (2010a). Implication of groundwater fluctuation on the seasonal salt dynamic in the Harran plain, south-eastern Turkey. Irrigation and Drainage, 59, 465–476.
Çullu, M. A., Aydemir, S., Bilgili, A. V., Almaca, A., Özturkmen, A. R., & Aydemir, A., et al. (2010b). Mapping salinity of the Harran plain’s soils and estimating the effect of salinity on crop yield (In Turkish). GAP Project Final report.
Çullu, M. A., Kılıç, Ş., Şenol, S., Ağca, N., Kurucu, Y., & Akça, E., et al. (2015). Mapping of the salt affected areas in Turkey. In ZMMOB ZİRAAT MÜHENDİSLERİ ODASI (www.zmo.org.tr) (Ed.) Türkiye Ziraat Mühendisliği VIII. Teknik Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı-I. Özdoğan Matbaa Yayın. (In Turkish) (pp. 88–101). Ankara. http://www.zmo.org.tr/resimler/ekler/329a8cf73f97f65_ek.pdf. Accessed 19 August 2018.
Darama, Y., Hatipoğlu, M. A., & Seyrek, K. (2007). Problems related to soil erosion and sediment transport in the Şanlıurfa-Harran irrigation scheme. International Congress On River Basin Management. http://www2.dsi.gov.tr/english/congress2007/chapter_2/43.pdf. Accessed 4 December 2017.
Dinç, U., Şenol, S., Sayın, M., Kapur, S., Güzel, N., Derici, R.,Yeşilsoy, M. Ş., et al. (1988). The Soils of the South-eastern Anatolia:I The Harran Plain (in Turkish). Şanlıurfa:TÜBİTAK (Proje No:TOAG-534).
DSI - General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works. (2004). Analyses of waters of main drainage canals of the Harran plain. DSI 15th Regional Directorate (In Turkish). Şanlıurfa.
Erşahin, S., & Yeşilsoy, M. Ş. (1993). The relationships between infiltration rates and some physical and chemical properties of six widely distributed and important soil series selected in Harran plain. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 17, 863–873.
GAP - Southeatern Anatolia Project Regional Development Administration. (1996). The significance of GAP in Turkey and world agriculture (in Turkish). Ankara.
Kendirli, B., Cakmak, B., & Ucar, Y. (2005). Salinity in the Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP), Turkey: issues and options. Irrigation and Drainage, 54, 115–122.
Moebius-Clune, B. N., Moebius-Clune, D. J., Gugino, B. K., Idowu, O. J., Schindelbeck, R. R., Ristow, A. J., van Es, H. M., Thies, J. E., Shayler, H. A., McBride, M. B., Wolfe, D. W., & Abawi, G. S. (2016). Comprehensive assessment of soil health—the cornell framework manual, Edition 3.1. Geneva: Cornell University.
Moulin, A. P., Buckley, K. E., & Volkmar, K. (2011). Soil quality as affected by amendments in bean-potato rotations. Canadian Journal of Soil Science, 91, 533–542.
Reeves, D.W. (1997). The role of soil organic matter in maintainingsoil quality in continuous cropping systems. Soil & Tillage Research, 43, 131–167.
Sönmez, O., Aydemir, S., Kaya, C., Çopur, O., Gerçek, S., Bilgili, A. V., & Sürücü, A. (2011). The impact of irrigation performance, phoshorous fertilizer and soil tillage on sediment lossess as a result of surface erosion due to excessive irrigation (in Turkish). TÜBİTAK (Project. Proje No:108O163).
Steenhuis, T. S., Bilgili, A. V., Kendy, E., Zaimoglu, Z., Cakmak, M. E., Cullu, M. A., & Ergezer, S. (2006). Options For Sustainable Groundwater Management In Arid and Semi Arid Areas. In M.Kacıra (Ed.), International Conference Sustainable Development and New Technologies for Agricultural Production in GAP Region (pp. 19–32), Şanlıurfa.
Tonkaz, T., Çullu, M. A., Van Es, H., Şimşek, M., Çopur, O., Arı, H., & Bilgili, A. V. (2010). The effect of different irrigation levels and fertilizer doses on CO2, N2O, CH4 emissions from cotton field in semi arid climate region and the relationships between emissions and yield parameters (in Turkish).. TÜBİTAK (Proje No:107O546).
Turkish Statistical Institute (TUIK). (2013). “With selected indicators Şanlıurfa 2013”. http://www.tuik.gov.tr/ilGostergeleri/iller/SANLIURFA.pdf. The latest access date: 3 March 2015.
WHO-World Healh Organization. (1985). Health hazards from nitrate in drinking-water. Report on a WHO meeting, Copenhagen, 5–9 March 1984. Copenhagen, WHO Regional Office for Europe (Environmental Health Series No. 1).
Yeşilnacar, İ. M., & Güllüoğlu, M. S. (2007). The effects of the largest irrigation of GAP project on groundwater quality, Şanlıurfa-Harran plain, Turkey. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 16, 206–211.
Yeşilnacar, M. I., & Gulluoglu, M. S. (2008). Hydrochemical characteristics and the effects of irrigation on groundwater quality in Harran plain, GAP project, Turkey. Environmental Geology, 54, 183–196.
Yeşilnacar, M. I., Sahinkaya, E., Naz, M., & Ozkaya, B. (2008). Neural network prediction of nitrate in groundwater of Harran plain, Turkey. Environmental Geology, 56, 19–25.
Yetim, S., & Kara, H. (2011). Determination of sediment and toxic element contents and some quality parameters of water carried in drainage canals in the Harran Plain, GAP region (in Turkish). TÜBİTAK (Proje No:109O421).
Zha, Y., Gao, J., & Ni, S. (2003). Use of normalized difference built-up index in automatically mapping urban areas from TM imagery. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 24, 583–594.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Şanlıurfa The 15th Regional Directorate of General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works for providing erosion data. We also would like to thank the reviewers and editors for their valuable comments and contributions to previous version of the manuscript.
Funding
Financial support for English language editing of the manuscript was provided under project named “Designing Local Framework of Integrated Water Resources and Management” supported by Research Institute for Humanity and Nature (RIHN), Japan.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bilgili, A.V., Yeşilnacar, İ., Akihiko, K. et al. Post-irrigation degradation of land and environmental resources in the Harran plain, southeastern Turkey. Environ Monit Assess 190, 660 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-7019-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-7019-2