Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Spatiotemporal assessment (quarter century) of pulp mill metal(loid) contaminated sediment to inform remediation decisions

  • Published:
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A bleached kraft pulp mill in Nova Scotia has discharged effluent wastewater into Boat Harbour, a former tidal estuary within Pictou Landing First Nation since 1967. Fifty years of effluent discharge into Boat Harbour has created >170,000 m3 of unconsolidated sediment, impacted by inorganic and organic contaminants, including metal[loid]s, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dioxins, and furans. This study aimed to characterize metal(loid)-impacted sediments to inform decisions for a $89 million CAD sediment remediation program. The remediation goals are to return this impacted aquatic site to pre-mill tidal conditions. To understand historical sediment characteristics, spatiotemporal variation covering ~quarter century, of metal(loid) sediment concentrations across 103 Boat Harbour samples from 81 stations and four reference locations, were assessed by reviewing secondary data from 1992 to 2015. Metal(loid) sediment concentrations were compared to current Canadian freshwater and marine sediment quality guidelines (SQGs). Seven metal(loid)s, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Hg, and Zn, exceeded low effect freshwater and marine SQGs; six, As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, and Zn, exceeded severe effect freshwater SQGs; and four, Cd, Cu, Hg, and Zn, exceeded severe effect marine SQGs. Metal(loid) concentrations varied widely across three distinct temporal periods. Significantly higher Cd, Cu, Pb, Hg, and Zn concentrations were measured between 1998 and 2000, compared to earlier, 1992–1996 and more recent 2003–2015 data. Most samples, 69%, were shallow (0–15 cm), leaving deeper horizons under-characterized. Geographic information system (GIS) techniques also revealed inadequate spatial coverage, presenting challenges for remedy decisions regarding vertical and horizontal delineation of contaminants. Review of historical monitoring data revealed that gaps still exist in our understanding of sediment characteristics in Boat Harbour, including spatial, vertical and horizontal, and temporal variation of sediment contamination. To help return Boat Harbour to a tidal estuary, more detailed sampling is required to better characterize these sediments and to establish appropriate reference (background) concentrations to help develop cost-effective remediation approaches for this decades-old problem.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adoli, F. K., Lalah, J. O., & Okoth, A. O. (2011). Analysis of moss and topsoil to monitor metal emissions from a pulp and paper mill in western Kenya. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 86, 137–143.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ali, M., & Sreekrishnan, T. R. (2001). Aquatic toxicity from pulp and paper mill effluents: a review. Advances in Environmental Research, 5, 175–196.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boat Harbour Act. (2015). Bill No. 89. Boat Harbour Act. An act respecting the cessation of the use of the Boat Harbour effluent treatment facility for the reception and treatment of effluent from the Northern Pulp Mill. Government of Nova Scotia. Retrieved 2016–09-20 from http://nslegislature.ca/legc/bills/.

  • Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). 2016. Canadian sediment quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life. Canadian environmental quality guidelines. Retrieved 2016-06-25 from http://st-ts.ccme.ca/

  • Chapman, P.M. 2011. Framework for addressing and managing aquatic contaminated sites under the Federal Contaminated Sites Action Plan (FCSAP), Burnaby (BC), Canada.

  • Colodey, A. G., & Wells, P. G. (1992). Effects of pulp and paper mill effluents on estuarine and marine ecosystems in Canada: a review. Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Health, 1, 201–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Contaminated Sites Regulations. 2013. Environment Act. S.N.S. 1994–95, c. 1 O.I.C. 2012–60.

  • Dalziel, J.A., Yeats, P.A., Loring, D.H. 1993. Water chemistry and sediment core data from Pictou Harbour and the East River Estuary. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 1917.

  • de Solla, S. R., Struger, J., & McDaniel, T. V. (2012). Detection limits can influence the interpretation of pesticide monitoring data in Canadian surface waters. Chemosphere, 86, 565–571.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunnington, D., & Spooner, I. (2017). Modeling the effect of convex upward deformation and horizontal sectioning on paleolimnological data. Journal of Paleolimnology, 57, 361–368. doi:10.1007/s10933-017-9947-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Environment Canada. 2003. National assessment of pulp and paper environmental effects monitoring data: a report synopsis. Burlington: National Water Research Institute. NWRI Scientific Assessment Report Series No. 2. 28p.

  • Environment Canada. 2013. Science solutions for improved pulp and paper mill effluents. Retrieved 2015–03-23 from http://www.ec.gc.ca/

  • Environment Canada. 2014a. Pulp and paper mill effluent chlorinated dioxins and furans regulations. Retrieved 2015–03-23 from http://www.ec.gc.ca/

  • Environment Canada. 2014b. National pollutant release inventory. Retrieved 2015–02-22 from http://www.ec.gc.ca/

  • Fisheries Act. 1985. R.S., c. F-14, s. 1.

  • Gagnon, C., Pelletier, É., & Mucci, A. (1997). Behaviour of anthropogenic mercury in coastal marine sediments. Marine Chemistry, 59, 159–176.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garron, C., Gagne, F., Ernst, W., Julien, G., Bernier, M., & Caldwell, C. (2005). Mercury contamination of marine sediments and blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) in the vicinity of a mercury cell chlor-alkali plant in Dalhousie, New Brunswick, Canada. Water Quality Research Journal of Canada, 40, 1–15.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gobeil, C., & Cossa, D. (1993). Mercury in sediments and sediment pore water in the Laurentian Trough. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 50, 1794–1800.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hadley, P. W., & Bruce, M. L. (2014). On representativeness. Journal of Environmental Forensics, 15, 1–3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, M. L., Parrott, J. L., & McMaster, M. E. (2006). A decade of research on the environmental impacts of pulp and paper mill effluents in Canada: sources and characteristics of bioactive substances. Journal Toxicology Environmental Health Part B, Critical. Reviews, 9, 341–356.

  • Hoffman, E., Bernier, M., Blotnicky, B., Golden, P. G., Janes, J., Kader, A., & Walker, T. R. (2015). Assessment of public perception and environmental compliance at a pulp and paper facility: a Canadian case study. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 187, 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, E., Guernsey, J.R., Walker, T.R., Kim, J.S, Sherren, K., Andreou, P. (2017). Pilot study investigating ambient air toxics emissions near a Canadian kraft pulp and paper facility in Pictou County, Nova Scotia. Environmental Science Pollution Research International. ESPR-D-16-06762.

  • Hope, B. K. (2006). An examination of ecological risk assessment and management practices. Environment International, 32, 983–995.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ITRC (Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council). 2011. Incorporating bioavailability considerations into the evaluation of contaminated sediment sites CS-1. Washington, DC. Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council, Sediments Team. Retrieved 2016–08-18 from http://www.itrcweb.org/contseds-bioavailability/.

  • ITRC (Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council). 2012. Incremental sampling methodology: ISM-1. Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council, Washington, DC. Retrieved 2016–08-18 from http://www.itrcweb.org.

  • Jackson, T. A. (2016). Historical variations in the stable isotope composition of mercury in a sediment core from a riverine lake: effects of dams, pulp and paper mill wastes, and mercury from a chlor-alkali plant. Applied Geochemistry, 71, 86–98.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacques Whitford Environment Limited (JWEL). 1997. Shoreline remediation, Boat Harbour stabilization lagoon. Draft report to NSTPW. Report 11412.

  • JWEL. 1999. Sediment chemistry and biotoxicity at the BHTF Stabilization Lagoon. Report to NSTPW. Report No. 13248.

  • JWEL. 2001. 2000 Sediment sampling BHTF stabilization lagoon. Report to NSTPW, Project No. NSD 15200.

  • JWEL. 2005. 2003/2004 sediment sampling BHTF stabilization lagoon. Report to NSTPW. Project No. NSD 17324–7.

  • JWEL and Beak Consultants. 1992. An investigation of sediment characteristics at Boat Harbour Treatment Facility. Report to Nova Scotia Department of Supply and Services, NSDSS Project. No. 8109.

  • JWEL and Beak Consultants. 1993. A supplementary study to assess the sediment characteristics of the estuary at the Boat Harbour Treatment Facility.

  • Lewinsky, A. A. (2007). Hazardous materials and wastewater: treatment, removal and analysis. New York: Nova Science Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loring, D.H., Rantala, R.T.T., Milligan, T.G. 1996. Metallic contaminants in the sediments of coastal embayments of Nova Scotia. Canadian Bulletin Fisheries Aquatic Sciences 2111, viii. 268 pp.

  • MacAskill, N. D., Walker, T. R., Oakes, K., & Walsh, M. (2016). Forensic assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at the former Sydney tar ponds and surrounding environment using fingerprint techniques. Environmental Pollution, 212, 166–177.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Magar, V. S., & Wenning, R. J. (2006). The role of monitored natural recovery in sediment remediation. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Manaement, 2, 66–74.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McLeay, D.J. 1987. Aquatic toxicity of pulp and paper mill effluent: a review. Environment Canada. Ottawa, Report EPS 4/PF/1,191.

  • Munkittrick, K. R., McMaster, M. E., & Servos, M. R. (2013). Detection of reproductive impacts of effluents from pulp and paper mills: shifts in issues and potential causes. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 32, 729–731.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nedwell, D. B., & Walker, T. R. (1995). Sediment-water fluxes of nutrients in an Antarctic coastal environment: influence of bioturbation. Polar Biology, 15, 57–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Northern Pulp Nova Scotia Corporation. 2015. About Bill no. 89: Boat Harbour Act. Retrieved 2016–08-18 from http://nslegislature.ca/.

  • Nova Scotia Environment. 2015. 2015 industrial approval for Northern Pulp Nova Scotia. Province of Nova Scotia. Environment Act, S.N.S. 1994–95, c.1.

  • Nriagu, J. O. (1989). A global assessment of natural sources of atmospheric trace metals. Nature, 338, 47–49.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oakes, K. 2016. Fish surveys at Boat Harbour. Report to Nova Scotia Lands Inc. p 7.

  • Ogden III, J. G. (1972). Oxygen demand of effluent from a bleached kraft pulp mill. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 1, 365–374.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, M. B., & Cranston, R. E. (2006). Influence of lead smelter emissions on the distribution of metals in marine sediments from Chaleur Bay, eastern Canada. Geochemistry Exploration Environmental Analysis, 6, 259–276.

  • Peng, J. F., Song, Y. H., Yuan, P., Cui, X. Y., & Qiu, G. L. (2009). The remediation of heavy metals contaminated sediment. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 161, 633–640.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pictou Landing Native Women’s Group, Castleden, H., Lewis, D., Jamieson, R., Gibson, M., Rainham, D., Russell, R., Martin, D., Hart, C. 2016. Our Ancestors are in our land, water, and air: a two-eyed seeing approach to researching environmental health concerns with Pictou Landing First Nation—Final Report. p. 117.

  • Pokhrel, D., & Viraraghavan, T. (2004). Treatment of pulp and paper mill wastewater—a review. Scince of the Total Environment 333, 37–58.

  • Pulp and paper effluent regulations (PPER). 1992. Pulp and paper effluent regulations. Fisheries Act SQR/92–69. P.C. 1992–961.

  • Roach, B., & Walker, T. R. (2017). Aquatic monitoring programs conducted during environmental impact assessments in Canada: preliminary assessment before and after weakened environmental regulation. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 189, 109. doi:10.1007/s10661-017-5823-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soskolne, C. L., & Sieswerda, L. E. (2010). Cancer risk associated with pulp and paper mills: a review of occupational and community epidemiology. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 29, 86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spooner, I., Dunnington, D. 2016. Boat Harbour gravity core sediment survey. Draft report to Nova Scotia Lands Inc. pp. 15.

  • Stantec. 2013. Sediment metals chemistry. (Unpublished raw data). Project No: 121410566.

  • Stantec. 2016. Final report: Geotechnical and contaminant assessment. Report to Nova Scotia Lands Inc. File No: 121413919.

  • Sunito, L. R., Shiu, W. Y., & Mackay, D. (1988). A review of the nature and properties of chemicals present in pulp mill effluents. Chemosphere, 7, 1249–1290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suresh, G., Sutharsan, P., Ramasamy, V., & Venkatachalapathy, R. (2012). Assessment of spatial distribution and potential ecological risk of the heavy metals in relation to granulometric contents of Veeranam lake sediments. India Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 84, 117–124.

  • Taylor, R. 2015. Boat Harbour cleanup far from simple. The Chronicle Herald. Retrieved 2016–08-18 from http://thechronicleherald.ca/business/

  • Tchounwou, P.B., Yedjou, C.G., Patlolla, A.K., Sutton, D.J. 2012. Heavy metal toxicity and the environment. In: Molecular, clinical and environmental toxicology. Springer, Basel. pp. 133–164.

  • United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 2008. The global atmospheric mercury assessment: sources, emissions and transport. Retrieved 2016–08-30 from http://www.unep.org/

  • USEPA. 2002. Role of Background in the CERCLA Cleanup Program Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington DC. EPA 540-R-01-003, OSWER Directive 9285.6-07P. April 26.

  • Walker, T. R. (2014). Environmental effects monitoring in Sydney Harbor during remediation of one of Canada’s most polluted sites: a review and lessons learned. Remediation Journal, 24, 103–117.

  • Walker, T. R. (2016). Mercury concentrations in marine sediments near a former mercury cell chlor-alkali plant in eastern Canada. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 107, 398–401.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, T. R., & Grant, J. (2015). Metal(loid)s in sediment, lobster and mussel tissues near historical gold mine sites. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 101, 404–408.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, T. R., & MacAskill, D. (2014). Monitoring water quality in Sydney Harbour using blue mussels during remediation of the Sydney Tar Ponds, Nova Scotia, Canada. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 186, 1623–1638.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, T. R., Young, S. D., Crittenden, P. D., & Zhang, H. (2003). Anthropogenic metal enrichment of snow and soil in north-eastern European Russia. Environmental Pollution, 121, 11–21.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, T. R., MacLean, B., Appleton, R., McMillan, S., & Miles, M. (2013a). Cost-effective sediment dredge disposal options for small craft harbors in Canada. Remediation Journal, 23, 123–140.

  • Walker, T. R., MacAskill, D., Rushton, T., Thalheimer, A., & Weaver, P. (2013b). Monitoring effects of remediation on natural sediment recovery in Sydney Harbour, Nova Scotia. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185, 8089–8107.

  • Walker, T. R., MacAskill, D., & Weaver, P. (2013c). Legacy contaminant bioaccumulation in rock crabs in Sydney Harbour during remediation of the Sydney Tar Ponds, Nova Scotia. Canada. Marine Pollution Bulletin 77, 412–417.

  • Walker, T. R., Bernier, M., Blotnicky, B., Golden, P. G., Hoffman, E., Janes, J., Kader, A., Kovacs-Da Costa, R., Pettipas, S., & Vermeulen, S. (2015a). Harbour divestiture in Canada: implications of changing governance. Marine Policy, 62, 1–8.

  • Walker, T. R., Willis, R., Leroy, M., MacLean, B., Appleton, R., McMillan, S., Wambolt, N., Gray, T., & Smith, M. (2015b). Ecological risk assessment of sediments in Sydney Harbour, Nova Scotia. Canada. Soil and Sediment Contamination, 24, 471–493.

  • Wilson, R.C.H., Travers, I.C. 1976. Mercury in the Atlantic provinces: a report to the Atlantic Regional Board Executive, Fisheries and the Environment Canada. Environment Canada, Environmental Services Branch, Environmental Protection Service, Ottawa, p. 49.

  • Wong, P. T. S., Chau, Y. K., Ali, N., & Whittle, D. M. (1994). Biochemical and genotoxic effects in the vicinity of a pulp mill discharge. Environmental Toxicology Water Quality, 9, 59–70.

  • Zhang, L., Campbell, L. M., & Johnson, T. B. (2012). Seasonal variation in mercury and food web biomagnification in Lake Ontario. Canada. Environmental Pollution, 161, 178–184.

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by Nova Scotia Lands. Valuable input and improvements to this paper were provided by representatives of the Boat Harbour Environmental Advisory Committee, Pictou Landing First Nation and two anonymous reviewers. We would also like to thank Farrah Stevens for confirming lack of reference site data.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School for Resource and Environmental Studies, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada

    Emma Hoffman & Tony R. Walker

  2. Department of Civil and Resource Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada

    James Lyons & Craig B. Lake

  3. Marine Affairs Program, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada

    James Boxall

  4. Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada

    Cam Robertson

Authors
  1. Emma Hoffman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. James Lyons
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. James Boxall
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Cam Robertson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Craig B. Lake
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Tony R. Walker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tony R. Walker.

Electronic supplementary material

ESM 1

(DOCX 62.5 MB)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hoffman, E., Lyons, J., Boxall, J. et al. Spatiotemporal assessment (quarter century) of pulp mill metal(loid) contaminated sediment to inform remediation decisions. Environ Monit Assess 189, 257 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-5952-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-5952-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation