Skip to main content

Advertisement

Springer Nature Link
Log in

Spatio-temporal patterns and factors controlling the hydrogeochemistry of the river Jhelum basin, Kashmir Himalaya

  • Published:
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

River Jhelum is a major source of water for growing population and irrigation in the Kashmir Himalaya. The region is trending towards water scarcity as well as quality deterioration stage due to its highly unregulated development. The existence of few literature on various aspects of the basin prompts us to study the spatio-temporal variability of its physicochemical parameters and thereby to understand the regulating hydrogeochemical mechanisms based on 50 samples collected during high flow (June 2008) and low flow (January 2009) periods. The water chemistry exhibited significant spatial variability reflecting the mixing processes in the basin. The seasonal effect does change the concentration of ions significantly with modest variability in the order of ionic abundance. The Ca2+ ion among cations and HCO3 − ion among anions dominate the ionic budget and correlates significantly with the diverse lithology of the basin. Three major water types, i.e., Ca-Mg-HCO3 (72 %), Ca-HCO3 (12 %), and Mg-Ca-HCO3 (16 %), suggest that the chemical composition of water is dominantly controlled by carbonate lithology, besides a significant contribution from silicates. However, at certain sites, the biological processes and anthropogenic activities play a major role. Relatively, the lower ionic concentration during high flow period (summer season) suggested the significant influence of higher discharge via dilution effect. The higher discharge due to higher rainfall and snow melting in response to rising temperature in this period leads to strong flushing of human and agricultural wastes into the river. The factor analysis also reflected the dominant control of varied lithology and anthropogenic sources on the water quality based on the four significant factors explaining collectively about 70–81 % of the total data variance. A two-member chloride mixing model used to estimate the discharge contribution of tributaries to the main river channel showed reliable results. It may be mentioned that the regular and continuous contamination through anthropogenic sources is likely to jeopardize and degrade the water quality in the near future. Thus, critical management approaches and strategies are very imperative for its future sustainability.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+
from $39.99 /Month
  • Starting from 10 chapters or articles per month
  • Access and download chapters and articles from more than 300k books and 2,500 journals
  • Cancel anytime
View plans

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles, books and news in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.

References

  • APHA (American Public Health Association), AWWA (American Water Works Association), & WEF (Water Environment Federation) (1999). Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water (14th ed.). Washington, DC: American Public Health Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arshid, J., Tanveer, A., Yousuf, A. R., Masood, A., & Naqash, A. H. (2011). Geochemistry and irrigation quality of groundwater along river Jhelum in south Kashmir, India. Recent Research in Science and Technology, 3(6), 57–63 ISSN: 2076–5061. www.scholarjournals.org.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aravena, R., & Robertson, W. D. (1998). Use of multiple isotope tracers to evaluate denitrification in ground water: study of nitrate from a large‐flux septic system plume. Ground Water, 36(6), 975–982.

  • Arumugam, K., & Elangovan, K. (2009). Hydrochemical characteristics and ground water quality assessment in Tirapur region, Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu, India. Environmental Geology. doi:10.1007/s00254-008-1652-y.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belkhiri, L., Boudoukha, A., Mouni, L., & Baouz, T. (2011). Application of multivariate statistical methods and inverse geochemical modeling for characterization of groundwater—a case study: Ain Azel plain (Algeria). Geoderma, 159(3–4), 390–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berner, E.K. & Berner, R. A. (1996). Global environment: water, air and geochemical cycles. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River. 376 p.

  • Berner, K. E., & Berner, R. A. (1987). The global water cycle: geochemistry and environment. Upper Saddle River.: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhat, S. A., & Pandit, A. K. (2014). Surface water quality assessment of Wular Lake, a Ramsar site in Kashmir Himalaya, using discriminant analysis and WQI. Journal of Ecosystems. doi:10.1155/2014/724728.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhat, M. I. (1982). Thermal and tectonic evolution of the Kashmir basin vis-a-vis petroleum prospects. Tectonophysics, 88(1), 117–132.

  • Bhat, D. K. (1989). Lithostratigraphy of Karewa group, Kashmir Valley India, and a critical review of its fossil record. Memoirs GSI, 122, 1–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhat, S. A., Meraj, G., Yaseen, S., Bhat, A. R., & Pandit, A. K. (2013). Assessing the impact of anthropogenic activities on spatiotemporal variation of water quality in Anchar lake, Kashmir Himalayas. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 3(5), 1625–1640.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bicalho, C. C., Batiot-Guilhe, C., Seidel, J. L., Van Exter, S., & Jourde, H. (2012). Geochemical evidence of water source characterization and hydrodynamic responses in a karst aquifer. Journal of Hydrology, 450–451, 206–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biksham, G., & Subramanian, V. (1988). Nature of solute transport in the Godavari basin, India. Journal of Hydrology, 103, 375–392.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bion, H. H., & Middlemiss, C. S. (1928). Fauna of agglomeratic slate series of Kashmir. Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India, 22, 1–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bischoff, J. L., Julià, R., Shanks, W. C., & Rosenbauer, R. J. (1994). Karstification without carbonic acid: bedrock dissolution by gypsum-driven dedolomitization. Geology, 22, 995–999.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Böhlke, J. K. (2002). Groundwater recharge and agricultural contamination. Hydrogeology Journal, 10(1), 153–179.

  • Bolch, T., Kulkarni, A., Kääb, A., Huggel, C., Paul, F., Cogley, J., Frey, H., Kargel, J., Fujita, K., & Scheel, M. (2012). The state and fate of Himalayan glaciers. Science, 336, 310–314.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, L. (1988). The growing grain gap. World Watch, 1(5), 10–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, S. R., Caraco, N. F., Correll, D. L., Howarth, R. W., Sharpley, A. N., & Smith, V. H. (1998). Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecological Applications, 8, 559–568.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carswell, G. (1997). Agricultural intensification and rural sustainable livelihoods: a ‘think piece’. In IDS working paper, 64. Brighton: IDS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, D. (1962). Rainwater as a chemical agent of geologic processes: a review. US Government Printing Office.

  • Chen, J., Wang, F., Xia, X., & Zhang, L. (2002). Major element chemistry of the Changjiang (Yangtze River). Chemical Geology, 187, 231–255.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, X., Zong, Y., Zhang, E., Xu, J., & Li, S. (2001). Human impacts on the Changjiang (Yangtze) river basin, China, with special reference to the impacts on the dry season water discharge into the sea. Geomorphology, 41, 111–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chetelat, B., Liu, C. Q., Zahao, Z. Q., Wang, Q. L., Li, S. L., Li, J., & Wang, B. L. (2008). Geochemistry of the dissolved load of the Chagjiang Basin rivers: anthropogenic impacts and chemical weathering. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 72, 4254–4277.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cloutier, V., Lefebvre, R., Therrien, R., & Savard, M. M. (2008). Multivariate statistical analysis of geochemical data as indicative of the hydrogeochemical evolution of groundwater in a sedimentary rock aquifer system. Journal of Hydrology, 353, 294–313.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Correll, L., Jordan, T. E., & Weller, D. E. (1992). Nutrient flux in a landscape: effects of coastal land use and terrestrial community mosaic on nutrient transport to coastal waters. Estuaries, 15, 431–442.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coward, J. M. H., Waltham, A. C., & Bowser, R. J. (1972). Karst springs in the Vale of Kashmir. Journal of Hydrology, 16(3), 213–223.

  • Cruz, J. V., & Amaral, C. S. (2004). Major ion chemistry of groundwater from perched-water bodies of Azores (Portugal) volcanic archipelago. Application of Geochemistry, 19, 445–459.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. C. (2002). Statistics and data analysis in geology (638). New York: Wiley.

  • De Terra, H. & Paterson, T.T. (1939). Studies on the Ice Age in India and associated human cultures, Carnegie Institution, Washington DC, 493, 1–354.

  • Elango, L., Kannan, R., & Senthilkumar, M. (2003). Major ion chemistry and identification of processes of groundwater in the part of the Kancheepuram District, Tamilnadu, India. Environmental Geosciences, 10(4), 157–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • France-Landlord, C., Evans, M., Hurtrez, J.-E., & Riotte, J. (2003). Annual dissolved fluxes from Central Nepal rivers: budget of chemical erosion in the Himalayas. C R Geosciences, 33, 1131–1140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeze, R. A., & Cherry, J. A. (1979). Groundwater. Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galy, A., & France-Lanord, C. (1999). Weathering processes in the Ganges-Brahmaputra basin and the riverine alkalinity budget. Chemical Geology, 159, 31–60.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ganju, J. L., & Khar, B. M. (1984). Tectonics and hydrocarbon prospects of Kashmir valley—possible exploration targets. Petrology Asian Journal, 207–216.

  • Garrels, R. M., & Mackenzie, F. T. (1971). Evolution of sedimentary rocks (450). New York: W W Norton.

  • Gibbs, R. J. (1970). Mechanism controlling world water chemistry. Science, 170, 1088–1090.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grosbois, C., Négrel, P., Fouillac, C., & Grimaud, D. (2000). Dissolved load of the Loire River: chemical and isotopic characterization. Chemical Geology, 170, 179–201.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • GSI (Geological Survey of India). (1977). Stratigraphic sequence of rocks exposed in Kashmir. Geology and mineral resources of the states of India part X—J and K, 2nd Ed.

  • Han, G., & Liu, C. Q. (2004). Water geochemistry controlled by carbonate dissolution: a study of the river waters draining karst-dominated terrain, Guizhou Province, China. Chemical Geology, 204, 1–21.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Herczeg, A. L., Simpson, H. J., & Mazor, E. (1993). Transport of soluble salts in a large semiarid basin: river Murray, Australia. Journal of Hydrology, 144, 59–84.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, A. R. (1978). Factors affecting the export of nitrate nitrogen from drainage basins in southern Ontario. Water Research, 12, 1045–1057.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • IMY (Indian Minerals Yearbook). (2012). State reviews (Jammu & Kashmir). Government of India, Ministry of Mines, Indian Bureau of Mines. Indira Bhavan, Civil Lines, NAGPUR—440 001. http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/environment/minerals/state-wise-production-and-distribution-of-non-metallic-minerals-in-india/19747/.

  • ISI (Indian Standards Institute). (1983). Indian standard specification for drinking water IS: 10500.

  • Jansen, N., Hartmann, J., Lauerwald, R., Dürr, H. H., Kempe, S., Loos, S., & Middelkoop, H. (2010). Dissolved silica mobilization in the conterminous USA. Chemical Geology, 270, 90–109.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jeelani, G., & Shah, A. Q. (2006). Geochemical characteristics of water and sediment from the Dal Lake, Kashmir Himalaya: constraints on weathering and anthropogenic activity. Environmental Geology, 50, 12–30.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jeelani, G., Nadeem, A. B., Shivanna, K., & Bhat, M. Y. (2011). Geochemical characterization of surface water and spring water in SE Kashmir Valley, western Himalaya: implications to water–rock interaction. Journal of Earth System Science, 120(5), 921–932.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, A., Sloan, W. T., & Cosby, B. J. (1995). Stream chemistry in the middle hills and high mountains of the Himalayas, Nepal. Journal of Hydrology, 166, 61–79.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jeppesen, E., Kronvang, B., Meerhoff, M., Søndergaard, M., Hansen, K. M., Andersen, H. E., Lauridsen, T. L., Liboriussen, L., Beklioglu, M., Özen, A., & Olesen, J. E. (2009). Climate change effects on runoff, catchment phosphorus loading and lake ecological state, and potential adaptations. Journal of Environmental Quality, 38, 1930–1941.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaul, V. (1979). Water characteristics of some fresh water bodies of Kashmir. Current Trends in Life Sciences, 9, 221–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan, M. A. (2008). Chemical environment and nutrient fluxes in a flood plain wet land ecosystem, Kashmir Himalayas, India. Indian Forester, 134(4), 505–514.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khan, M. A. (2010). Environmental contamination of Hokersar wet land waters in Kashmir Himalayan valley, India. Journal of Environmental Science & Engineering, 52(20), 157–162.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kotti, M. E., Vlessidis, A. G., Thanasoulias, N. C., & Evmiridis, N. P. (2005). Assessment of river water quality in northwestern Greece. Water Resources Management, 19(1), 77–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krishna, M. S. (1968). The Geology of India and Burma. Higginbothams Pvt., Madras.

  • Li, L., Zou, L., Song, H., & Morris, G. (2009). Ordered mesoporous carbons synthesized by a modified sol–gel process for electrosorptive removal of sodium chloride. Carbon, 47(3), 775–781.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, C. Q., Li, S. L., Lang, Y. C., & Xiao, H. Y. (2006). Using d15N and d18O values to identify nitrate sources in karst ground water, Guiyang, Southwest China. Environmental Science and Technology, 40, 6928–6933.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Long, A. J., Ohms, M. J., & McKaskey, J. D. (2012). Groundwater Flow, Quality (2007-10), and Mixing in the Wind Cave National Park Area, South Dakota. US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey.Lu, X. X., & Siew, R. Y. (2006). Water discharge and sediment flux changes over the past decades in the Lower Mekong River: possible impacts of the Chinese dams. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 10(2), 181–195.

  • Lu, X. X., & Siew, R. Y. (2006). Water discharge and sediment flux changes over the past decades in the Lower Mekong River: possible impacts of the Chinese dams. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 10(2), 181–195.

  • Madison, R.J. & Brunett, J.O. (1984). Overview of the occurrence of nitrate in ground water of the United States, in National Water Summary 1984. U.S. Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper, 2275.

  • Maya, A. L., & Loucks, M. D. (1995). Solute and isotopic geochemistry and groundwater flow in the central Wasatch range, Utah. Journal of Hydrology, 172, 31–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meraj, G., Romshoo, S. A., Yousuf, A. R., Altaf, S., & Altaf, F. (2015). Assessing the influence of watershed characteristics on the flood vulnerability of Jhelum basin in Kashmir Himalaya. Natural Hazards, 77(1), 153–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meybeck, M. (1987). Global chemical weathering of surficial rocks estimated from river dissolved loads. American Journal of Science, 287, 401–428.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meybeck, M. (1998). Man and river interface: multiple impacts on water and particulates chemistry illustrated in the Seine River basin. Hydrobiologia, 1998(373), 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meybeck, M. (2003). Global analysis of river systems: from earth system controls to Anthropocene syndromes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences, 358, 1935–1955.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Middlemiss, C. S. (1910). Revision of Silurian-Trias sequence in Kashmir. Records of the Geological Survey of India, 40(3), 206–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mir, R. A., & Jeelani, G. (2014). Hydrogeochemical assessment of river Jhelum and its tributaries for domestic and irrigation purposes, Kashmir valley, India. Current Science, 109(2), 311–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mir, R. A., Jain, S. K., Saraf, A. K., & Goswami, A. (2014a). Glacier changes using satellite data and effect of climate in Tirungkhad basin located in western Himalaya. Geocarto International, 29, 293–313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mir, R. A., Jain, S. K., Saraf, A. K., & Goswami, A. (2014b). Detection of changes in glacier mass balance using satellite and meteorological data in Tirungkhad Basin located in western Himalaya. Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 42, 91–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mir, R. A., & Jeelani, G. (2015). Textural characteristics of sediments and weathering in the Jhelum River basin located in Kashmir Valley, western Himalaya. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 86, 445–458.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mir, R. A., Jain, S. K., Saraf, A. K., & Goswami, A. (2015a). Decline in snowfall in response to temperature in Satluj basin, western Himalaya. Journal of Earth System Science, 124(2), 365–382.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mir, R. A., Jain, S. K., Saraf, A. K., & Goswami, A. (2015b). Accuracy assessment and trend analysis of MODIS-derived data on snow-covered areas in the Sutlej basin, Western Himalayas. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 36(15), 3837–3858.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mir, R., Jain, S., & Saraf, A. (2015c). Analysis of current trends in climatic parameters and its effect on discharge of Satluj River basin, western Himalaya. Natural Hazards, 79(1), 587–619.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, P. J., Martin, J. B., & Screaton, E. J. (2009). Geochemical and statistical evidence of recharge, mixing, and controls on spring discharge in an ecogenetic karst aquifer. Journal of Hydrology, 376(3–4), 443–455.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murtaza, K. O., & Romshoo, S. A. (2016). Recent glacier changes in the Kashmir Alpine Himalayas, India. Geocarto International, 1–18.

  • Mushtaq, F., Lala, M. G. N., & Pandey, A. C. (2015). Assessment of pollution level in a Himalayan Lake, Kashmir, using geomatics approach. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry. doi:10.1080/03067319.2015.1077517.

    Google Scholar 

  • Negrel, P., Allegre, C. J., Dupre, B., & Lewin, E. (1993). Erosion sources determined by inversion of major and trace element ratios in river water: the Congo basin case. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 120, 59–76.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petalas, C., Lambratis, N., & Zaggana, E. (2006). Hydrochemistry of waters of volcanic rocks: the case of the volcanic sedimentary rocks of Thrace, Greece. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 169, 375–394.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Piper, A. M. (1944). A graphic procedure in the geochemical interpretation of water analyses. Annals of Geophysical Union Transactions, 25, 914–923.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plummer, L. N., Busenberg, E., McConnell, J. B., Drenkard, S., Schlosser, P., & Michel, R. L. (1998). Flow of river water into a karstic limestone aquifer. 1. Tracing the young fraction in groundwater mixtures in the upper Floridan aquifer near Valdosta, Georgia. Applied Geochemistry, 13(8), 995–1015.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Probst, J. L., Nkounkou, R. R., Krempp, G., Bricquet, J. P., Thiébaux, J. P., & Olivry, J. C. (1992). Dissolved major elements exported by the Congo and the Ubangi rivers during the period 1987–1989. Journal of Hydrology, 135, 237–257.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rashid, I., & Romshoo, S. A. (2012). Impact of anthropogenic activities on water quality of Lidder River in Kashmir Himalayas. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. doi:10.1007/s10661-012-2898-0.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rashid, I., Farooq, M., Muslim, M., & Romshoo, S. A. (2013). Assessing the impact of anthropogenic activities on Manasbal Lake in Kashmir Himalayas. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 3(6), 2052–2063.

    Google Scholar 

  • Romshoo, S. A., & Muslim, M. (2011). Geospatial modelling for assessing the nutrient load of a Himalayan Lake. Environment and Earth Science, 64, 1269–1282.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Romshoo, S. A., & Rashid, I. (2012). Assessing the impacts of changing land cover and climate on Hokersar wet land in Indian Himalayas. Arabian Journal of Geosciences. doi:10.1007/s12517-012-07619.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sekhar, C. M., & Satya Prasad, M. V. K. (2006). Regression models for assessment of dissolved pollutants in Krishna River. Journal of Indian Water Resources Society, 24(4), 46–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shah, S. K. (1972). Stratigraphic studies on lower Palaeozoic sequence of Anantnag district, Kashmir. Himalayan Geology, 2, 468–480.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheikh, J. A., Jeelani, G., Gavali, R. S., & Shah, R. A. (2014). Weathering and anthropogenic influences on the water and sediment chemistry of Wular Lake, Kashmir Himalaya. Environment and Earth Science, 71(6), 2837–2846.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shivashranappa, & Yalkpalli, A. (2012). Hydro-geochemical analysis of Bhima River in Gulbarga District, Karnataka state, India; IOSR. Journal of Engineering, 2(4), 862–882.

    Google Scholar 

  • Si, Y. B., Wang, S. Q., & Chen, H. M. (2000). Water eutrophication and losses of nitrogen and phosphorus in farmland. Soins, 32, 188–193.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, H. J., & Herczeg, A. L. (1991). Salinity and evaporation in the river Murray Basin, Australia. Journal of Hydrology, 124, 1–27.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, A. K., Mondal, G. C., Singh, P. K., Singh, S., Singh, T. B., & Tewary, B. K. (2005). Hydrochemistry of reservoirs of Damodar River basin, India: weathering processes and water quality assessment. Environmental Geology, 48, 1014–1028.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, A., Meetei, N. S. & Meetei L. B. (2013). Seasonal variation of some physico-chemical characteristics of three major rivers in Imphal, Manipur: a comparative evaluation. Current World Environment, 8(1). doi:10.12944/CWE.8.1.10

  • Stallard, R. E., & Edmond, J. M. (1987). Geochemistry of the Amazon: 3. Weathering chemistry and limits to dissolved inputs. Journal of Geophysical Research, 92(C8), 8293–8302.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stallard, R. F., & Edmond, J. M. (1983). Geochemistry of the Amazon: 2. The influence of geology and weathering environment on the dissolved load. Journal of Geophysical Research, 88, 9671–9688.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • StatSoft Inc. (2004). STATISTICA (Data Analysis Software System), Version 6.

  • Stumm, W. (1992). Chemistry of the solid–water interface. New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Subrahmanyam, V. (2000). Water: quantity-quality perspective in South Asia. Kingston International Publishers. Surrey. UK & ENVS JNU.

  • Thakur, V.C. & Rawat, B.S. (1992). Geological map of the Western Himalaya. Survey of India.

  • Tijani, M. N. (1994). Hydrogeo-chemical assessment of ground water in Moro area, Kulara state, Nigeria. Environmental Geology, 24, 194–202.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trivedy, R. K., & Goel, P. K. (1984). Chemical and biological methods for water pollution studies (215). Karad, India: Environment Publications.

  • Vega, M., Pardo, R., Barrado, E., & Debán, L. (1998). Assessment of seasonal and polluting effects on the quality of river water by exploratory data analysis. Water Research, 32(12), 3581–3592.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vohra, C. P. (1981). The climate of the Himalayas. In J. S. Lall (Ed.), The Himalaya: aspects of change (pp. 138–151). New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vorosmarty, C.J., Fekete, B. & Tucker, B.A. (1998). River discharge database, version 1.1 (RivDIS v1.0 supplement). Available through the Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans, and Space, University of New Hampshire, Durham NH (USA).

  • Wadia, D. N. (1934). The Cambrian-Triassic sequence of NW Kashmir; rec. Geological Survey of India., 68(2), 121–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadia, D. N. (1975). Geology of India (344p). New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.

  • Wadia, D. N. (1976). Geology of India (p. 536). New Delhi, India: The English Language Book Society.

  • Wani, R. A., & Khairkar, V. P. (2011). Quantifying land use and land cover change using geographic information system: a case study of Srinagar city, Jammu and Kashmir, India. International Journal Geomatics and Geosciences, 2(1), 976–4380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wet lands International. (2007). Comprehensive Management Action Plan for Wular Lake, Kashmir. Lake assessment for the Department of Wildlife Protection Govt. of Jammu & Kashmir. Wetlands International—South Asia. A-25, (2nd Floor), Defence Colony, New Delhi-110024. www.wetlands.org.

  • Whitehead, P. G., Wilby, R. L., Butterfield, D., & Wade, A. J. (2006). Impacts of climate change on nitrogen in a lowland chalk stream: an appraisal of adaptation strategies. Science of the Total Environment, 365, 260–273.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (World Health Organisation). (1993, 2004). International standards for drinking water, World Health Organization, Geneva.

  • Yadav, S. S., & Kumar, R. (2011). Monitoring water quality of Kosi river in Rampur district, Uttar Pradesh, India. Advances in Applied Science Research, 2(2), 197–201.

  • Yan, W., Yin, C., & Zhang, S. (1999). Nutrient budgets and biogeochemistry in an experimental agricultural watershed in southeastern China. Biogeochemistry, 45(1), 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yongjun, J., Daoxian, Y., & Shiyon, X. (2006). Ground water quality and landuse change in a typical karst agricultural region: a case study of Xiaojiang watershed, Yunnan. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 16(4), 405–414.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, J., Huang, W., & Letolle, R. (1995). Major element chemistry of Haunghe, China weathering processes and chemical fluxes. Journal of Hydrology, 168, 173–203.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Irrigation and Flood Control Department, Government of Jammu and Kashmir for providing the discharge data. The Head, Department of Earth Sciences, KU is acknowledged for the support provided during the study period. Indian Meteorological Centre, Jammu and Kashmir provided the meteorological data. The reviewers’ constructive comments are highly acknowledged as the input from them has helped to improve the manuscript extensively.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, 247667, India

    Riyaz Ahmad Mir

  2. Geological Survey of India, State Unit: J&K, Srinagar, 190008, India

    Riyaz Ahmad Mir

  3. Department of Earth Sciences, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, 190006, India

    Gh Jeelani & Farooq Ahmad Dar

Authors
  1. Riyaz Ahmad Mir
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gh Jeelani
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Farooq Ahmad Dar
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Riyaz Ahmad Mir.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Mir, R.A., Jeelani, G. & Dar, F.A. Spatio-temporal patterns and factors controlling the hydrogeochemistry of the river Jhelum basin, Kashmir Himalaya. Environ Monit Assess 188, 438 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5429-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5429-6

Keywords

Profiles

  1. Farooq Ahmad Dar View author profile