Abstract
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) used extensively over the past 3 decades as flame retardants in most types of polymers, all over the world, have been identified as global pollutants. PBDEs pose various health problems such as thyroid hormone disruption, permanent learning and memory impairment, behavioral changes, hearing deficits, delayed puberty onset, fetal malformations, and possibly cancer. Many measurements of PBDEs in various matrices from Sweden, Holland, Japan, the USA, and elsewhere have been reported, but few measurements are available for India. In this study, a preliminary screening of different congeners of PBDEs has been performed in different old electronic and consumer products with an objective to build capacity in order to analyze PBDEs and BFRs. Six different samples, foam from upholstery, motherboard of a computer, children toy composite sample, old vanishing window blind sample, electrical wire sample, and PVC flooring sample, were collected and analyzed for the presence of the following PBDE congeners: BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153, BDE-154, BDE-183, and BDE-209. It was found that three out of six samples were positive for the presence of PBDEs. Three congeners were detected in the samples, i.e., BDE-47, BDE-153, and BDE-209, of which, highest concentration was of BDE-209. Among the samples, motherboard of computer showed the highest concentration of BDE-209 followed by window blind and foam from upholstery. The results of this preliminary investigation indicate that PBDEs are still present in the old consumer products which can be an important additional source of exposure to the population.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alaee, M., Arias, P., Sjo din, A., & Bergman, Å. (2003). An overview of commercially used brominated flame retardants, their applications, their use patterns in different countries/regions and possible modes of release. Environmental International, 29, 683–689. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12850087. Accessed Dec 2013.
ATSDR (2004). Toxicological profile for polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polybrominated biphenyls. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp68.html. Accessed Dec 2013.
Bromine Science and Environmental Forum, BSEF (2013). India. http://www.bsef.com/regulation/asia-pacific/india (Accessed Dec 2013).
Chen, D. H., Bi, X. H., Zhao, J. P., Chen, L. G., Tan, J. H., Mai, B. X., et al. (2009a). Pollution characterization and diurnal variation of PBDEs in the atmosphere of an E-waste dismantling region. Environmental Pollution 157, 1051–7.
Chen, S.-J., Ma, Y.-J., Wang, J., Chen, D., Luo, X.-J., & Mai, B.-X. (2009b). Brominatedflameretardants in children’s toys: concentration, composition, and children’s exposure and risk assessment. Environmental International, 43(11), 4200–4206.
Darnerud, P. O., Eriksen, G. S., Jóhannesson, T., Larsen, P. B., & Viluksela, M. (2001). Polybrominated diphenyl ethers: occurrence, dietary exposure, and toxicology. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109(suppl 1), 49–68.
EPA, (2006). Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) Project Plan. http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/actionplans/proj-plan32906a.pdf (Accessed Dec 2013).
European Chemicals Agency, ECHA. (2012). Agreement of the member state committee on the identification of bis(pentabromophenyl) ether [decabromodiphenyl ether]. Helsinski: ECHA. Member State Committee, 29 November 2012.
Ha, N. N., Agusa, T., Ramu, K., Tu, N. P., Murata, S., Bulbule, K. A., et al. (2009). Contamination by trace elements at e-waste recycling sites in Bangalore India. Chemosphere, 76, 9–15.
Hamers, T., Kamstra, J. H., Sonneveld, E., Murk, A. J., Kester, M. H., Andersson, P. L., et al. (2006). In vitro profiling of the endocrine-disrupting potency of brominated flame retardants. Toxicological Sciences, 92(1), 157–173.
Hamers, T., Kamstra, J. H., Sonneveld, E., Murk, A. J., Visser, T. J., Van Velzen, M. J., et al. (2008). Biotransformation of brominated flame retardants into potentially endocrine-disrupting metabolites, with special attention to 2,2’,4,4’-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47). Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 52(2), 284–298.
Harrad, S., Ibarra, C., Diamond, M., et al. (2008). Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in domestic indoor dust from Canada, New Zealand United Kingdom and United States. Environmental International, 34, 232–238.
Hayakawa, K., Takatsuki, H., Watanabe, I., & Sakai, S. (2004). Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PBDD/Fs) and mono- bromo-polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (MoBPXDD/Fs) in the atmosphere and bulk deposition in Kyoto Japan. Chemosphere, 57, 343–356.
Henrik, S. (2012). Global Environmental Governance and Regional Centers. Global Environmental Politics, 12(3), 18–37.
Kierkegaard, A., Asplund, L., De Wit, C. A., McLachlan, M. S., Thomas, G. O., Sweetman, A. J., et al. (2007). Fate of higher brominated PBDEs in lactating cows. Environmental International, 41, 417–423.
La Guardia, M. J., Hale, R. C., & Harvey, E. (2006). Detailed Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether (PBDE) Congener Composition of the Widely Used Penta-, Octa-, and Deca-PBDE Technical Flame-retardant Mixtures. Environmental Science & Technology, 40, 6247–6254.
Martin, M., Lam, P. K. S., & Richardson, B. J. (2004). An Asian quandary: where have all of the PBDEs gone? Marine Pollution Bulletin, 49, 375–382.
McDonald, T. A. (2002). A perspective on the potential health risks of PBDEs. Chemosphere, 46, 745–755.
Moon, H. B., Kannan, K., Lee, S. J., & Choi, M. (2007). Atmospheric deposition of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in coastal areas in Korea. Chemosphere, 66, 585–593.
Prevedouros, K., Jones, K. C., & Sweetman, A. J. (2004). Estimation of the production, consumption, and atmospheric emissions of pentabrominated diphenyl ether in Europe between 1970 and 2000. Environmental International, 38, 12.
Puckett, J., Byster, L., Westervelt, S., Gutierrez, R., Davis, S., Hussain, A., Dutta, M., (2002). Exporting harm: the high-tech trashing of Asia. (<http://www.crra.com/ewaste/ttrash2/ttrash2>).
Richardson, V. M., Staskal, D. F., Ross, D. G., Diliberto, J. J., DeVito, M. J., & Birnbaum, L. S. (2008). Possible mechanisms of thyroid hormone disruption in mice by BDE 47, a major polybrominated diphenyl ether congener. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 226(3), 244–250.
Ross, P. S., Couillard, C. M., Ikonomou, M. G., Johannessen, S. C., Lebeuf, M., Macdonald, R. W., et al. (2009). Large and growing environmental reservoirs of Deca-BDE present an emerging health risk for fish and marine mammals. Marine Bulletin Pollution, 58, 7–9.
Schecter, A., Pavuk, M., Päpke, O., Ryan, J. J., Birnbaum, L., & Rosen, R. (2003). Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in U.S. mothers' milk. Environmental Health Perspectives, 111(14), 1723–1729.
Schecter, A., Papke, O., Joseph, J. E., & Tung, K. C. (2005). Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in U.S.computers and domes-tic carpet vacuuming: possible sources of human exposure. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 68, 501–513.
Schlummer, M., Gruber, L., Maurer, A., Wolz, G., VanEldik, R. (2011). Characterisation of polymer fractions from waste electrical and electronic equipement (WEEE) and implications for waste management. Chemosphere 67, 1866–1876.
Segev, O., Kushmaro, A., & Brenner, A. (2009). Environmental impact of flame retardants (persistence and biodegradability). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 6, 478–491.
SFT. Norwegian Pollution Control Authority (2009). Guidance on alternative flame retardants to the use of commercial pentabromodiphenylether (c-PentaBDE). SFT, Oslo, February 2009.
Shaw, S. D., Blum, A., Weber, R., Kannan, K., Rich, D., Lucas, D., Koshland, C. P., Dobraca, D., Hanson, S., & Birnbaum, L. S. (2010). Halogenated flame retardants: do the fire safety benefits justify the risks? Reviews on Environmental Health 25(4):261–305.
Sindiku, O., Babayemi, J. O., Osibanjo, O., Schlummer, M., Schluep, M., & Weber, R. (2012). Assessing POP-PBDEs and BFRs in E-waste polymers in Nigeria. Organohalogen Compounds, 74, 1320–1223.
Stapleton, H. M., Alaee, M., Letcher, R. J., & Baker, J. E. (2004). Debromination of the flame retardant decabromodiphenyl ether by juvenile carp (Cyprinus carpio) following dietary exposure. Environmental International, 38, 112–119.
Stapleton, H. M., Sjödin, A., Jones, R. S., Niehüser, S., Zhang, Y., & Patterson, D. G., Jr. (2008). Serum levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in foam recyclers and carpet installers working in the United States. Environmental Science and Technology, 42(9), 3453–3458.
Stockholm Convention (2012a). Guidance for the Inventory of commercial Pentabromodiphenyl ether (c-PentaBDE), commercial Octabromodiphenyl ether (c-OctaBDE) and Hexabromobiphenyls (HBB) under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants; Draft. http://chm.pops.int/Implementation/NIPs/Guidance/GuidancefortheinventoryofPBDEs/tabid/3171/Default.aspx. Accessed Dec 2013
Stockholm Convention (2012b) Guidelines on Best Available Techniques and Best Environmental Practice for the Recycling and Disposal of Articles containing Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants; Draft; http://chm.pops.int/Implementation/NIPs/Guidance/GuidanceonBATBEPfortherecyclingofPBDEs/tabid/3172/Default.aspx. Accessed Dec 2013
Subramanian A, Takahashi S, Parthasarathy P., Kesav A. Bulbule, Shinsuke Tanabe (2010). Contamination Associated with E-waste Recycling in India. Conference Proceedings BFR, Kyoto, Japan. http://www.bfr2013.com/abstract_download/2010/upload/90148.pdf
UNEP (2010a). Debromination of brominated flame retardants. Stockholm Convention document for 6th POP Reviewing Committee meeting (UNEP/POPS/POPRC.6/INF/20) Geneva 11-15. October 2010.
UNEP (2010b). Technical review of the implications of recycling commercial penta and octabromodiphenyl ethers. Stockholm Convention document for 6th POP Reviewing Committee meeting (UNEP/POPS/POPRC.6/INF/6) Geneva 11-15. October 2010.
United Nations News Service (2010). "As e-waste mountains soar, UN urges smart technologies to protect health". United Nations-DPI/NMD - UN News Service Section.
Van den Steen, E., Covaci, A., Jaspers, V. L. B., Dauwe, T., Voorspoels, S., Eens, M., et al. (2007). Accumulation, tissue-specific distribution and debromination of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE 209) in European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). Environmental Pollution, 148, 648–653.
Webster, P. (2004). Persistent toxic substances: study finds heavy contamination across vast Russian Arctic. Science, 306, 1875.
Webster, T. F., Harrad, S., Millette, J. R., Holbrook, R. D., Davis, J. M., Stapleton, H. M., et al. (2009). Identifying transfer mechanisms and sources of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE 209) in indoor environments using environmental forensic microscopy. Environmental Science and Technology, 43, 3067–3072.
Wurl, O., Potter, J. R., Durville, C., & Obbard, J. P. (2006). Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) over the open Indian Ocean. Atmospheric Environment, 40, 5558–5565.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the financial support of Secretariat of Stockholm Convention, Geneva under the Small Scale Funding agreement and the Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment (RECETOX), Czech Republic for assistance during sampling and sample analyses. We also acknowledge the enthusiastic support and encouragement of Dr. P. L. Muthal, Dr. Kavita Gandhi, and Dr. N. A. Khan during this research work.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kumari, K., Sharma, J.K., Kanade, G.S. et al. Investigation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in old consumer products in India. Environ Monit Assess 186, 3001–3009 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3596-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3596-2