Abstract
Soil and sediment samples from several intertidal environment exposed to different types of contamination were studied to investigate the importance of grain size in relation to the capacity of the substrates to retain trace metals. The unfractionated samples (referred to as bulk samples) were separated into the following grain/size fractions: fine–coarse sand (2−0.100 mm), very fine sand (0.100−0.050 mm), silt (0.050−0.002 mm), and clay (0.002 mm). The sample into its fractions was carried out was in a glove box under high-purity N2 atmosphere in order to minimize any alterations to the samples. The bulk samples were characterized in terms of physicochemical properties such as pH, redox potential, and grain size. The total organic carbon (TOC), total sulfur (S), iron (Fe) pyrite, Fe, and manganese (Mn), and trace metals lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr), and nickel (Ni) were analyzed in the bulk samples and in each fraction. The sand fractions were also examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Comparisons of the above parameters were made between fractions and between each fraction and the corresponding bulk sample. The fine–coarse sand fraction contained high levels of the primary elements of the geochemical processes that occur in marine sedimentary environments such as TOC, total Fe, Mn, and S. The net concentrations of these four elements were higher in the fine-coarse sand fraction than in the very fine sand fraction and were similar to the net concentrations in the silt and clay fractions. Detailed SEM analysis of the sand coarse fraction revealed the presence of Fe and aluminum oxyhydroxide coatings in the oxic layers, whereas the framboidal pyrites and coatings observed in the anoxic layers were Fe sulfides. The presence of the various coatings explains why the trace metal concentrations in the sand fine–coarse fraction were similar to those in the clay fraction and higher than those in the very fine sand fraction. The present results highlight the importance of the sand fraction, which is generally disregarded in geochemical and environmental studies of sedimentary layers.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ackermann, F. (1980). A procedure for correcting grain size effect in heavy metal analysis of estuarine and coastal sediments. Environmental Technology Letters, 1, 518–527.
Ackermann, F., Bergmann, M., & Schleichert, G. U. (1983). Monitoring of heavy metals in coastal and estuarine sediments—a question of grain size: <20 μm versus <60 μm. Environmental Technology Letters, 4, 317–328.
Adriano, D. C. (2001). Trace elements in terrestrial environments. New York: Springer.
Alloway, B. J. (1990). Heavy metals in soils. London: Blackie.
Álvarez-Iglesias, P., Rubio, B., & Vilas, F. (2000). Plomo en sedimentos y organismos de la ensenada de San Simón. Thalassas, 16, 81–94.
Araujo, M. F., Bernard, P. C., & Van Grieken, R. E. (1988). Heavy metal contamination in sediments form the Belgian Coast and Sheldt estuary. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 19, 269–273.
Beiras, R., Fernández, N., González, J. J., Besada, V., & Schultze, F. (2002). Mercury concentrations in seawater, sediments and wild mussels from the coast of Galicia (NW Spain). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44, 345–349.
Berner, R. A. (1970). Sedimentary pyrite formation. Amer. J. Sci., 268, 1–23.
Brook, E. J., & Moore, J. N. (1988). Particle-size and chemical control of As, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn in bed sediment from the Clark Fork river, Montana (USA). Sci. Tot. Environ., 76, 247–266.
Bruland, K. W., Franks, R. P., Knauer, G. A., & Martin, J. H. (1979). Sampling and analytical methods for the nanogram per litre determination of copper, cadmium, zinc, and nickel in seawaters. Analytical Chimica Acta, 105, 233–241.
Butler, I. A., & Rickard, D. (2000). Framboidal pyrite formation via the oxidation of iron II monosulfide by hydrogen sulphide. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 64, 2665–2672.
Cambardella, C. A., Gajda, A. M., Doran, J. W., Wienhold, B. J., & Kettler, T. A. (2001). Estimation of particulate and total organic matter by weight loss-on-ignition. In R. Lal, J. M. Kimble, R. F. Follett, & B. A. Stewart (Eds.), Assessment methods for soil carbon (pp. 349–359). Boca Raton, FL: Lewis.
Canfield, D. E., Rainswell, R., & Bottrell, S. (1992). The reactivity of sedimentary iron minerals toward sulfide. American Journal of Science, 292, 659–683.
Carral, E., Puente, X., Villares, R., & Carballeira, A. (1995). Background heavy metals levels in estuarine sediments and organisms in Galicia (NW Spain) as determined by modal analysis. Science of the Total Environment, 172, 175–188.
Carral, E., Villares, R., Puente, X., & Carballeira, A. (1995). Influence of watershed lithology on heavy metal levels in estuarine sediments and organisms in Galicia (NW Spain). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 30, 604–608.
Castellanos, E. M., Figueroa, M. E., & Davy, A. J. (1994). Nucleation and facilitation in saltmarsh sucession: interactions between Spartina marítima and Arthronemum perenne. Journal of Ecology, 82, 239–248.
De Groot, A. J., & Allersma, E. (1975). Field observations on the transport of heavy metals in sediments. In P. A. Krenkel (Ed.), Heavy metals in the aquatic environment (pp. 85–101). Oxford: Pergamon.
Din, Z. B. (1992). Use of aluminium to normalize heavy-metal data from estuarine and coastal sediments of Straits of Melaka. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 24, 484–491.
Droppo, I. G., & Jaskot, C. (1995). Impact of river transport characteristics on contaminant sampling error and design. Environmental Science and Technology, 28, 161–170.
Förstner, U. (1977). Metal concentrations in freshwater sediments—natural background and cultural effects. In H. L. Golterman (Ed.), Interactions between sediments and fresh water (pp. 94–103). The Hague: Junk.
Förstner, U., & Wittmann, G. T. (1979). Metal pollution in the aquatic environment. Berlin: Springer. 486 pp.
Gee, G. W., & Or, D. (2002). Particle-size analysis. In J. H. Dane & G. C. Topp (Eds.), Methods of soil analysis. Part 4, physical methods (pp. 255–293). Soil Science Society of America: Madison, WI.
Horowitz, A. J., & Eirick, K. A. (1987). The relation of stream sediment surface area, grain size and composition to trace element chemistry. Applied Geochemistry, 2, 437–451.
Huerta-Díaz, M. A., & Morse, J. W. (1990). A quantitative method for determination of trace metals in anoxic marine sediments. Marine Chemistry, 29, 119–144.
Huerta-Díaz, M. A., & Morse, J. W. (1992). Pyritization of trace metals in anoxic marine sediments. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 56, 2681–2702.
Kornicker, W. A., & Morse, J. W. (1991). Interactions of divalent cations with the surface of pyrite. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 55, 2159–2171.
Krumgalz, B. S. (1989). Unusual grain size effect on trace metals and organic matter distribution in contaminated sediments. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 20, 608–611.
Krumgalz, B. S., Fainshtein, G., & Cohen, A. (1992). Grain size effect on anthropogenic trace metal and organic matter distribution in marine sediments. Science of the Total Environment, 116, 15–30.
Loring, D. H. (1990). Lithium- a new approach for the granulometrical normalization of trace metal data. Marine Chemistry, 29, 156–168.
Luoma, S. N., & Bryan, G. W. (1978). Factors controlling the availability of sediment-bound lead to the estuarine bivalve Scrobicularia plana. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 58, 793–802.
Mayer, L. M., & Fink, K. J. R. (1980). Granulometric dependence of chromium accumulation in estuarine sediments in Maine. Estur. Coast. Mar. Sci., 11, 491–503.
Morse, J. W., & Luther, G. W., III. (1999). Chemical influences on trace metal-sulfide interactions in anoxic sediments. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 63, 3373–3378.
Nriagu, J. O. (1996). A history of global metal pollution. Science, 272, 223–224.
Otero, X. L., & Fernández-Sanjurjo, M. J. (2000). Mercury in faeces and feathers of yellow-legged gull (Larus cachinans) and in soils from their breeding sites (Cíes Islands-NW Spain) in the vicinity of a chor-alkali plant. Fresenius Envir. Bull., 9, 056–063.
Otero, X. L., & Macías, F. (2002a). Variation with depth and season in metal sulfides in salt marsh soils. Biogeochemistry, 61, 247–268.
Otero, X. L., & Macías, F. (2002b). Fraccionamiento de Fe en fluvisoles de las marismas de la Ría de Ortigueira (Galicia). Edafología, 9, 257–272.
Otero, X. L., & Macías, F. (2003). Variation with depth and season in metal sulfides in salt marsh soils. Biogeochemistry, 61, 247–268.
Otero, X. L., Huerta-Díaz, M. A., & Macías, F. (2000). Heavy metals geochemistry of saltmarsh soils from the ría of Ortigueira (mafic and ultramafic areas, NW Iberian Peninsula). Environmental Pollution, 110, 285–296.
Otero, X. L., Sánchez, J. M., & Macías, F. (2000). Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in thionic fluvisols by a marine polychaete (Nereis diversicolor): the role of metal sulfide. Journal of Environmental Quality, 29, 1133–1141.
Otero, X. L., Huerta-Díaz, M. A., & Macías, F. (2003). Influence of a turbidite deposit on the extent of pyritization of iron, manganese and trace metals in sediments from the Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California (Mexico). Applied Geochemistry, 18, 1149–1163.
Otero, X. L., Vidal, P., Calvo, R., & Macías, F. (2005). Trace elements in biodeposits and sediments from mussel culture in the ría de Arousa (Galica, NW Spain). Environmental Pollution, 136, 119–134.
Otero, X. L., Calvo, R., & Macías, F. (2006). Sulphur partitioning in sediments and biodeposits below mussel rafts in the ría de Arousa (Galicia, NW Spain). Marine Environmental Research, 61, 305–325.
Otero, X. L., Calvo, R. M., & Macías, F. (2009). Iron geochemistry under mussel rafts in the Galician ria system (Galicia-NW Spain). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 81, 83–93.
Pekey, H., Karakas, D., Ayberk, S., Tolum, L., & Bakoglu, M. (2004). Ecological risk assessment using trace elements from surface sediments of Izmit Bay (Northeastern Marmara Sea) Turkey. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 48, 946–953.
Ponnamperuma, F. N. (1972). The chemistry of sumerged soils. Advances in Agronomy, 24, 29–98.
Raiswell, B., Canfield, D., & Berner, R. A. (1994). A comparación of iron extraction methods for the determination of degree and the recognition of iron limitation-pyrite formation. Chemical Geology, 111, 101–110.
Rubio, R., Nombela, M. A., & Vilas, F. (2000). Análisis multivariante aplicado a la determinación del fondo geoquímico para metales pesados en sedimentos submareales actuales de la ría de Vigo. Geotemas, 1, 159–164.
Salomons, W., & Förstner, U. (1984). Metals in hydrocycle (p. 349). Berlin: Springer.
Schulte, E. E., & Hopkins, B. G. (1996). Estimation of soil organic matter by weight loss-on-ignition. In F. R. Magdoff, M. A. Tabatabai, & E. A. Hanlon jr (Eds.), Soil organic matter: analysis and interpretation. Madison, WI, USA: Soil Science of America, Inc.
Simón, M., Ortiz, I., García, I., Fernández, E. J., Fernández, J., Dorronsoro, C., et al. (1999). Pollution of soils by the toxic spill of a pyrite mine (Aznalcollar, Spain). Science of the Total Environment, 242, 106–115.
Soil Survey Staff. (1993). Soil survey manual. Washington DC: USDA.
Stone, M., & Droppo, I. G. (1996). Distribution of lead, copper and zinc in size-fractionated river bed sediment in two agricultural catchments of southern Ontario, Canadá. Environmental Pollution, 93, 353–362.
Sutherland, R. (2003). Lead in grain size fractions of road-deposited sediment. Environmental Pollution, 121, 229–237.
Tessier, A., Campbell, P. G. C., & Bisson, M. (1982). Particulate trace metal speciation in stream sediments and relationships with grain size: implications for geochemical exploration. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 16, 77–104.
Turner, F.T., & Patrick, J.R., 1968. Chemical changes in waterlogged soils as a result of oxygen depletion. 9th Congr. Soil Science IV: 53–65. Adelaide. Australia.
Villares, R., Puente, X., & Carballeira, A. (2003). Heavy metals in sandy sediments of the Rías Baixas (NW Spain). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 83, 129–144.
Whitney, P. R. (1975). Relationship of manganese–iron oxides and associated heavy metals to grain size in stream sediments. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 4, 251–263.
Wilkin, R. T., Barnes, H. L., & Brantley, S. (1996). The size distribution of framboidal pyrite in modern sediments: as indicator of redox conditions. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 60, 3897–3912.
Acknowledgments
This study was financially supported by the project entitled “Monitorización dos procesos bioxeoquímicos nas lagoas litorais de Galicia en relación coa súa calidade ambiental e respuesta ao cambio climático”, funded by the Consellería de Innovación e Industria-Xunta de Galicia (PGIDIT08MDS036000PR). We thank María J. Santiso for laboratory assistance.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Otero, X.L., Huerta-Díaz, M.A., De La Peña, S. et al. Sand as a relevant fraction in geochemical studies in intertidal environments. Environ Monit Assess 185, 7945–7959 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3146-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3146-y