Skip to main content

Occurrence of disinfection by-products in tap water distribution systems and their associated health risk

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment volume 185, pages 7675–7691 (2013)Cite this article

Abstract

The concentrations of trihalomethanes (THMs), including chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform, and haloacetic acids (HAAs; monochloroacetic acid, monobromoacetic acid, dibromoacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, and trichloroacetic acid) were measured in tap waters passing through water distribution systems of six water treatment plants in Seoul, Korea, and their associated health risks from exposure to THMs through ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation were estimated using a probabilistic approach. The concentration ranges for total THMs and HAA5 were 3.9–53.5 and <LOD–49.5 μg/L, respectively. Among DBPs, chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dichloroacetic acid, and trichloroacetic acid were the most frequently detected. Spatial and seasonal variations in concentrations of THMs and HAAs in the six water distribution systems were significant (P < 0.001).The mean lifetime cancer risks through ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation during showering ranged as 7.23–10.06 × 10−6, 2.19–3.63 × 10−6, and 5.22–7.35 × 10−5, respectively. The major exposure route to THMs was inhalation during showering. Sensitivity analysis showed that shower time and shower frequency had a great impact on the lifetime cancer risk by the exposure to THMs in tap water.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

43,34 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

References

  • Basu, M., Gupta, S. K., Singh, G., & Mukhopadhyay, U. (2010). Multi-route risk assessment from trihalomethanes in drinking water supplies. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 178, 121–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baytak, D., Sofuoglu, A., Inal, F., & Sofuoglu, S. C. (2008). Seasonal variation in drinking water concentrations of disinfection by-products in IZMIR and associated human health risks. Science of the Total Environment, 407, 286–296.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Calderon, R. L. (2000). The epidemiology of chemical contaminants of drinking water. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 38, 13–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • California Environmental Protection Agency (Cal/EPA) (2010). http://www.calepa.ca.gov. Accessed 26 Nov 2010.

  • Chowdhury, S., & Chanpagne, P. (2009). Risk from exposure to trihalomethanes during shower: Probabilistic assessment and control. Science of the Total Environment, 407, 1570–1578.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chowdhury, S., & Hall, K. (2010). Human risk assessment from exposure to trihalomethanes in Canadian cities. Environmental International, 36, 453–460.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duong, H. A., Berg, M., Hoang, M. H., Pham, V., Gallard, H., Giger, W., et al. (2003). Trihalomethane formation by chlorination of ammonium- and bromide-containing groundwater in water supplies of Hanoi, Vietnam. Water Research, 37, 3242–3252.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Golfinopoulos, S. K., & Nikolaou, A. D. (2005). Survey of disinfection by-products in drinking water in Athens, Greece. Desalination, 176, 13–24.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Golfinopoulos, S. K., Nikolaou, A. D., & Lekkas, T. D. (2003). The occurrence of disinfection by-products in the drinking water of Athenes, Greece. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 10, 368–372.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hinckley, A. F., Bachand, A. M., & Reif, J. S. (2005). Late pregnancy exposures to disinfection by-products and growth-related birth outcomes. Environmental Health Perspectives, 113, 1808–1813.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hsu, C. H., Jeng, W. L., Chang, R. M., Chien, L. C., & Han, B. C. (2001). Estimation of potential lifetime cancer risks for trihalomethanes from consuming chlorinated drinking water in Taiwan. Environmental Research Section A, 85, 77–82.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jo, W. K., Weisel, C. P., & Lioy, P. J. (1990a). Routes of chloroform exposure and body burden from showering with chlorinated tap water. Risk Analysis, 10, 575–580.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jo, W. K., Weisel, C. P., & Lioy, P. J. (1990b). Routes of chloroform exposure and body burden from showering with chlorinated tap water. Risk Analysis, 10, 581–585.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • KEFH (2010). Korean exposure factors handbook. www.kefh.net. Accessed 20 Nov 2010.

  • Kerger, B. D., Schmidt, C. E., & Paustenbach, D. J. (2000). Assessment of airborne exposure to trihalomethanes from tap water in residential showers and baths. Risk Analysis, 20, 637–651.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, J., Chung, Y., Shin, D., Kim, M., Lee, Y., Lim, Y., et al. (2003). Chlorination by-products in surface water treatment process. Desalination, 151, 1–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, Y. S. (2006). The determinants of tap water consumption patterns. Journal of Korean Home Management Association, 24, 93–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, H. (2008). Seasonal variations in the household exposures of Korean housewives to volatile tap water disinfection by-products. Science of the Total Environment, 403, 59–67.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, J. (2009). Fate of THMs and HAAs in low TOC surface water. Environmental Research, 109, 158–165.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • King, W. D., Marrett, L. D., & Woolcott, C. G. (2000). Case–control study of colon and rectal cancers and chlorination by-products in treated water. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 9, 813–818.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Korea Statistical Information Service (KOSIS) (2010). http://www.kosis.kr. Accessed 20 Nov 2010.

  • Korean Ministry of Environment (2010). Korean Drinking Water Standard, http://www.me.go.kr. Accessed 12 Dec 2010.

  • Krasner, S. W., & Wright, J. M. (2005). The effect of boiling water on disinfection by-product exposure. Water Research, 39, 855–864.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, K. J., Kim, B. H., Hong, J. E., Pyo, H. S., Park, S. J., & Lee, D. W. (2001). A study on the distribution of chlorination by-products (CBPs) in treated water in Korea. Water Research, 35, 2861–2872.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. C., Guo, H., Lam, S. M. J., & Lau, S. L. A. (2004). Multipathway risk assessment on disinfection by-products of drinking water in Hong Kong. Environmental Research, 94, 47–56.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levesque, S., Rodriguez, M. J., Serodes, J., Beaulieu, C., & Proulx, F. (2006). Effects of indoor drinking water handling on trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids. Water Research, 40, 2921–2930.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Toledano, M. B., Eaton, N. E., Fawell, J., & Elliott, P. (2000). Chlorination disinfection byproducts in water and their association with adverse reproductive outcomes: A review. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 57, 73–85.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nikolaou, A. D., Golfinopoulos, S. K., Lekkas, T. D., & Arhonditsis, G. (2004). Factors affecting the formation of organic by-products during water chlorination: A bench-scale study. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 159, 357–371.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panyakapo, M., Soontorchai, S., & Paopuree, P. (2008). Cancer risk assessment from exposure to trihalomethanes in tap water and swimming pool water. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 20, 372–378.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pardakhti, A. R., Bidhendi, G. R. N., Torabian, A., Karbassi, A., & Yunesian, M. (2010). Comparative cancer risk assessment of THMs in drinking water from well water sources and surface water sources. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 179, 499–507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parvez, S., Rivera-Núñez, Z., Meyer, A., & Wright, J. M. (2011). Temporal variability in trihalomethane and haloacetic acid concentrations in Massachusetts public drinking water systems. Environmental Research, 111, 499–509.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Risk Assessment Information System (RAIS) (2010). http://rais.ornal.gov. Accessed 15 Oct 2010.

  • Rodriguez, M. J., Serodes, J. B., & Levallois, P. (2004). Behavior of trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids in a drinking water distribution system. Water Research, 38, 4367–4382.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, M. J., Serodes, J. B., Levallois, P., & Proulx, F. (2007). Chlorinated disinfection by-products in drinking water according to source, treatment, season, and distribution location. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science, 6, 355–365.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryu, J. S., Chung, K. Y., Kwak, M. W., Sun, Y. S., & Baek, S. H. (2004). Analyzed VOCs in extractives from the water purifiers and measured heavy-metal removal rates of water-purifier evaluation system. Journal of the Korean Society for Environmental Analysis, 7, 149–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • SH Corporation (SHC) (2010). http://www.i-sh.co.kr. Accessed 30 Sept 2010.

  • Sharp, E. L., Jarvis, P., Parsons, S. A., & Jefferson, B. (2006). Impact of fractional character on the coagulation of NOM. Colloids Surf A: Physicochem Eng Aspects, 286, 104–111.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tan, Y. M., Lao, K. H., & Clewell, H. J. (2007). Reverse dosimetry: Interpreting trihalomethanes biomonitoring data using physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, 17, 591–603.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • US EPA. Method 524.2 (1995). Measurement of purgeable organic compounds in water by capillary column gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. http://www.epa.gov/sam/pdfs/EPA-524.2.pdf. Accessed 11 Oct 2010.

  • US EPA. Method 552.2 (1995). Determination of haloacetic acids and dalapon in drinking water by liquid-liquid extraction, derivatization and gas chromatography with electron capture detection. http://www.calsb.com/EPA-Methods/PDF/552_2.pdf. Accessed 11 Oct 2010.

  • US EPA. (1997). Exposure factors handbook. Washington, DC: Office of Research and Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • US EPA (1998a). National primary drinking water regulations: disinfectants and disinfection byproducts; Final rule. 40 CFR Parts 9, 14 and 142. Federal Register Part IV, 63; 241; 69390–69476.

    Google Scholar 

  • US EPA (1998b). Human health risk assessment protocol. EPA-530-D-98-001A. USA: USEPA Office of Solid Waste.

  • US EPA (1999). Exposure factors handbook. Washington, D.C.: Office of research and development

  • US EPA. (2004). Risk assessment guidance for superfund volume I: Human health evaluation manual (Part E, Supplemental guidance for dermal risk assessment). http://www.epa.gov/oswer/riskassessment/ragse/pdf/introduction.pdf. Accessed 15 Mar 2011.

  • US EPA (2006). National primary drinking water regulations: disinfectants and disinfection byproducts Final Rule 40CFR Parts 9, 14 and 142. Federal Register Part II, 71: 387–493.

    Google Scholar 

  • US EPA (2011). Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/index.cfm. Accessed 15 Mar 2011.

  • Uyak, V. (2006). Multi-pathway risk assessment of trihalomethanes exposure in Istanbul drinking water supplies. Environmental International, 32, 12–21.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Uyak, V., & Toroz, I. (2007). Investigation of bromide ion effects on disinfection by-products formation and speciation in an Istanbul water supply. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 149, 445–451.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Viana, R. B., Cavalcante, R. M., Braga, F. M. G., Viana, A. B., de Araujo, J. C., Nascimento, R. F., et al. (2009). Risk assessment of trihalomethanes from tap water in Fortaleza, Brazil. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 151, 317–325.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Villanueva, C. M., Cantor, K. P., Cordier, S., Jaakkola, J. J. K., King, W. D., Lynch, C. F., et al. (2004). Disinfection byproducts and bladder cancer. A pooled analysis. Epidemiology, 15, 357–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Villanueva, C. M., Canor, K. P., Grimalt, J. O., Malats, N., Silverman, D., Tardon, A., et al. (2006). Bladder cancer and exposure to water disinfection by-products through ingestion, bathing, showering and swimming in pools. American Journal of Epidemiology, 165, 148–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, G. S., Deng, Y. C., & Lin, T. F. (2007). Cancer risk assessment from trihalomethanes in drinking water. Science of the Total Environment, 387, 86–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waterworks Research Institute Seoul Metropolitan Government (WRISMG) (2009) http://water.seoul.go.kr. 30 Dec 2009

  • Whitaker, H., Nieuwenhuijsenm, M. J., Best, N., Fawell, J., Gowers, A., & Elliot, P. (2003). Desciption of trihalomethane levels in three UK water suppliers. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, 13, 17–23.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2008). Guidelines for drinking water quality, 3rd ed., Incorporating the first and second addenda, Recommendations (Vol. 1). Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, J. M., Schwaetz, J., & Dockery, D. W. (2003). Effect of trihalomethane exposure on fetal development. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 60, 173–180.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, J. M., Schwaetz, J., & Dockery, D. W. (2004). The effect of disinfection by-products and mutagenic activity on birth weight and gestational duration. Environmental Health Perspectives, 112, 920–925.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X., & Weisel, C. P. (2003). Inhalation exposure to haloacetic acids and haloketones during showering. Environmental Science and Technology, 37, 569–576.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ye, B., Wang, W., Yang, L., Wei, J., & Xueli, E. (2009). Factors influencing disinfection by-products formation in drinking water of six cities in China. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 171, 147–152.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Korean Government (MEST) (No. 2010-0014222).

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Gwacheon, Gyeonggi Province, 427070, South Korea

    Jin Lee, Eun-Sook Kim, Bang-Sik Roh & Seog-Won Eom

  2. Institute of Health and Environment, School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Seoul, 152742, South Korea

    Jin Lee & Kyung-Duk Zoh

Authors
  1. Jin Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Eun-Sook Kim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Bang-Sik Roh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Seog-Won Eom
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Kyung-Duk Zoh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kyung-Duk Zoh.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lee, J., Kim, ES., Roh, BS. et al. Occurrence of disinfection by-products in tap water distribution systems and their associated health risk. Environ Monit Assess 185, 7675–7691 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3127-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3127-1

Keywords

  • Tap water
  • Trihalomethanes (THMs)
  • Haloacetic acids (HAAs)
  • Cancer risk
  • Inhalation
  • Ingestion
  • Dermal contact