Abstract
This study investigates the effect of boundary conditions and treatment-time on the electro-desalination of artificially-contaminated soil. The effect of ion exchange membranes (IEM), calcium chloride (CaCl2), and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) on the removal of salt (i.e., Na+, Cl−, and Ca2+) and metal (i.e., Co2+ and Fe2+) ions from the soil by electrokinetic (EK) was studied. The outcomes demonstrate that an increase in treatment-time decreases the electroosmosis and ion removal rate, which might be attributed to the formation of acid–base fronts in soil, except in the IEM case. Because a high pH jump and electroosmotic flow (EOF) of water were not observed within the soil specimen due to the IEM, the removal of ions was only by diffusion and electromigration. The collision of acid–base fronts produced a large voltage gradient in a narrow soil region with a reduced electric field (EF) in its remaining parts, causing a decrease in EOF and ion transport by electromigration. The results showed that higher electroosmosis was observed by using CaCl2 and EDTA; thus, the removal rate of Co2+, Na+, and Ca2+ was greater than Clˉ due to higher EOF. However, for relatively low EOF, the removal of Clˉ exceeded that of Co2+, Na+, and Ca2+, possibly due to a lack of EOF. In addition, the adsorption of Fe2+ in soil increased with treatment-time due to the corrosion of the anode during all EK experiments except in the case of IEM, where an anion exchange membrane (AEM) was introduced at the anode–soil interface.
Graphical abstract
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data that support the findings of this study are included within the article (and any supplementary files).
References
Abou-Shady, A. (2016). Reclaiming salt-affected soils using electro-remediation technology: PCPSS evaluation. Electrochimica Acta, 190, 511–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2016.01.036
Abou-Shady, A., & Peng, C. (2012). New process for ex situ electrokinetic pollutant removal. I: Process evaluation. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 18, 2162–2176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2012.06.014
Acar, Y. B., & Alshawabkeh, A. N. (1993). Principles of electrokinetic remediation. Environmental Science and Technology, 27, 2638–2647. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00049a002
Acar, Y. B., Gale, R. J., Alshawabkeh, A. N., Marks, R. E., Puppala, S., Bricka, M., & Parker, R. (1995). Electrokinetic remediation: Basics and technology status. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 40, 117–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3894(94)00066-P
Ait Ahmed, O., Derriche, Z., Kameche, M., Bahmani, A., Souli, H., Dubujet, P., & Fleureau, J. M. (2016). Electro-remediation of lead contaminated kaolinite: An electro-kinetic treatment. Chem. Eng. Process. Process Intensif., 100, 37–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2015.12.002
Bessaim, M.M., Missoum, H., Bendani, K., Laredj, N., Bekkouche, M.S., 2020. Effect of processing time on removal of harmful emerging salt pollutants from saline-sodic soil during electrochemical remediation. Chemosphere 253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126688
Boulakradeche, O.M., Merdoud, O., Akretche, D.E., 2022. Enhancement of electrokinetic remediation of lead and copper contaminated soil by combination of multiple modified electrolyte conditioning techniques. Environmental Engineering Research, 27, 0–2. https://doi.org/10.4491/eer.2021.167
Brouwer, C., Heibloem, M., (1986). Irrigation Water Needs: Irrigation Water Management. Training manual no. 1. Train. Man. No. 1.
Cai, Z., Sun, Y., Deng, Y., Zheng, X., Sun, S., Sinkkonen, A., & Romantschuk, M. (2022). Enhanced electrokinetic remediation of cadmium (Cd)-contaminated soil with interval power breaking. International Journal of Environmental Research, 16, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41742-022-00409-6
Cameselle, C. (2015). Enhancement of electro-osmotic flow during the electrokinetic treatment of a contaminated soil. Electrochimica Acta, 181, 31–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.02.191
Cameselle, C., Gouveia, S., & Cabo, A. (2021). Enhanced electrokinetic remediation for the removal of heavy metals from contaminated soils. Applied Sciences, 11, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11041799
Cameselle, C., & Pena, A. (2016). Enhanced electromigration and electro-osmosis for the remediation of an agricultural soil contaminated with multiple heavy metals. Process Safety and Environment Protection, 104, 209–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2016.09.002
Chien, S. C., Ou, C. Y., & Wang, Y. H. (2011). Soil improvement using electroosmosis with the injection of chemical solutions: Laboratory tests. Journal of the Chinese Institute of Engineers, Transactions of the Chinese Institute of Engineers,series A, 34, 863–875. https://doi.org/10.1080/02533839.2011.591915
Chien, S. C., Teng, F. C., & Ou, C. Y. (2015). Soil improvement of electroosmosis with the chemical treatment using the suitable operation process. Acta Geotechnica, 10, 813–820. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-014-0319-y
Dvořáčková, H., Dvořáček, J., González, P.H., Vlček, V., 2022. Effect of different soil amendments on soil buffering capacity. PLoS One 17. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263456
Estefan, G., Sommer, R., Ryan, J., 2013. Methods of Soil , Plant , and Water Analysis : A manual for the West Asia and North, pp. 1–243.
Hansen, H. K., & Rojo, A. (2007). Testing pulsed electric fields in electroremediation of copper mine tailings. Electrochimica Acta, 52, 3399–3405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2006.07.064
He, N., Yang, Y., Wang, H., Li, F., Jiang, B., Tang, D., & Li, L. (2023). Ion-transfer engineering via janus hydrogels enables ultrahigh performance and salt-resistant solar desalination. Advanced Materials, 35, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202300189
Hu, L., Zhang, L., & Wu, H. (2019). Experimental study of the effects of soil pH and ionic species on the electro-osmotic consolidation of kaolin. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 368, 885–893. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.09.015
Hussain, A. A., Kamran, K., Ishaq, M., Akram, A., & Hina, M. (2023a). Optimization of electroosmotic flow to enhance the removal of contaminants from low-permeable soils. Journal of Appled Electrochemistry, 53, 1245–1258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10800-023-01845-8
Hussain, A.A., Kamran, K., Hina, M., Ishaq, M., Naz, M.Y., Bashir, S., Sarwar, N., Quazi, M.M., (2023b). Effect of electrokinetic treatment time on energy consumption and salt ions removal from clayey soils. Materials Research Express 10. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/acd436
Hussain, A. A., Kamran, K., Waseem, M., Umar, S., Hina, M., Altaf, M., Mohealdeen, S. M., Habila, M. A., Hussein, A. A., & Rafique, A. (2023c). Effect of voltage gradient on energy consumption and chromium ions removal from salt-affected clayey soils. Journal of Appled Electrochemistry. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10800-023-01987-9
Ishaq, M., Kamran, K., Jamil, Y., Sarfraz, R.A., 2021. Electric potential and current distribution in contaminated porous building materials under electrokinetic desalination. Materials and Structures Constructions, 54. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-021-01770-2
Ishaq, M., Kamran, K., Hussain, A. A., & Hina, M. (2023). Sorption of modified clay minerals in pore solution of fired clay brick under pulsed current. Construction and Building Materials, 407, 133503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133503
Jaffrezic-Renault, N., & Dzyadevych, S. V. (2008). Conductometric Microbiosensors for Environmental Monitoring. Sensors, 8, 2569–2588. https://doi.org/10.3390/s8042569
Kamran, K., Pel, L., Sawdy, A., Huinink, H., & Kopinga, K. (2012a). Desalination of porous building materials by electrokinetics: An NMR study. Materials and Structures Constructions, 45, 297–308. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-011-9766-1
Kamran, K., Van Soestbergen, M., Huinink, H. P., & Pel, L. (2012b). Inhibition of electrokinetic ion transport in porous materials due to potential drops induced by electrolysis. Electrochimica Acta, 78, 229–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2012.05.123
Kim, W. S., Kim, S. O., & Kim, K. W. (2005). Enhanced electrokinetic extraction of heavy metals from soils assisted by ion exchange membranes. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 118, 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2004.10.001
Li, F., Guo, S., & Hartog, N. (2012). Electrokinetics-enhanced biodegradation of heavy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil around iron and steel industries. Electrochimica Acta, 85, 228–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2012.08.055
Li, H., Tan, Y., Xie, Z., Sun, D., & Sun, W. (2021). Method for measuring the saturated permeability coefficient of compacted bentonite at temperatures exceeding 100 °C. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 141, 103958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2021.103958
Li, X., Yang, Z., He, X., & Liu, Y. (2020). Optimization analysis and mechanism exploration on the removal of cadmium from contaminated soil by electrokinetic remediation. Separation and Purification Technology, 250, 117180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2020.117180
Li, Z., Yu, J. W., & Neretnieks, I. (1998). Electroremediation: Removal of heavy metals from soils by using cation selective membrane. Environmental Science and Technology, 32, 394–397. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9703584
Liu, Y., Zhuang, Y., & feng, Xiao, F., Liu, Z.,. (2023). Mechanism for reverse electroosmotic flow and its impact on electrokinetic remediation of lead-contaminated kaolin. Acta Geotechnica, 18, 1515–1528. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-022-01640-3
Li, H., Liu, H., Nong, Z., Qin, C., Zhong, Q., Liang, Y., Ye, B., Lin, H., (2023). Heavy metal contaminated soil remediated by a bioelectrochemical system: Simultaneous promotion of electrochemically active bacteria and bipolar membrane. Journal of Membrane Science, 668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2022.121266
Mohamedelhassan, E., & Shang, J. Q. (2002). Feasibility assessment of electro-osmotic consolidation on marine sediment. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Ground Improvement, 6, 145–152. https://doi.org/10.1680/grim.2002.6.4.145
Ottosen, L. M., Hansen, H. K., & Hansen, C. B. (2000). Water splitting at ion-exchange membranes and potential differences in soil during electrodialytic soil remediation. Journal of Appled Electrochemistry, 30, 1199–1207. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026557830268
Ottosen, L. M., Hansen, H. K., Laursen, S., & Villumsen, A. (1997). Electrodialytic remediation of soil polluted with copper from wood preservation industry. Environmental Science and Technology, 31, 1711–1715. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9605883
Ottosen, L. M., & Rörig-Dalgaard, I. (2009). Desalination of a brick by application of an electric DC field. Mater. Struct. Constr., 42, 961–971. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-008-9435-1
Paul, B.K., Rashid, H., (2017). Climatic hazards in coastal Bangladesh. Science Direct, pp. 153–182.
Puppala, S. K., Alshawabkeh, A. N., Acar, Y. B., Gale, R. J., & Bricka, M. (1997). Enhanced electrokinetic remediation of high sorption capacity soil. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 55, 203–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3894(97)00011-3
Ramzan, U., Majeed, W., Hussain, A.A., Qurashi, F., Qamar, S.U.R., Naeem, M., Uddin, J., Khan, A., Al-Harrasi, A., Razak, S.I.A., Lee, T.Y., (2022). New insights for exploring the risks of bioaccumulation, molecular mechanisms, and cellular toxicities of AgNPs in aquatic ecosystem. Water (Switzerland), 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14142192
Skibsted, G., Ottosen, L. M., Jensen, P. E., & Paz-Garcia, J. M. (2015). Electrochemical desalination of bricks—Experimental and modeling. Electrochimica Acta, 181, 24–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.03.041
Song, Y., Ammami, M. T., Benamar, A., Mezazigh, S., & Wang, H. (2016). Effect of EDTA, EDDS, NTA and citric acid on electrokinetic remediation of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn contaminated dredged marine sediment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23, 10577–10586. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5966-5
Sun, T. R., Ottosen, L. M., & Jensen, P. E. (2012). Pulse current enhanced electrodialytic soil remediation-Comparison of different pulse frequencies. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 237–238, 299–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.08.043
Tsamo, C., Yerima, N. E., & Mua, E. N. (2022). Evaluation of the transport and mobility of Co(II) in soils from agricultural, waste dump and an automobile repair shop sites in Bambili-Cameroon. Environ. Chem. Ecotoxicol., 4, 29–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enceco.2021.12.001
Wen, D., Fu, R., & Li, Q. (2021a). Removal of inorganic contaminants in soil by electrokinetic remediation technologies: A review. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 401, 123345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123345
Wen, D., Guo, X., & Fu, R. (2021b). Inhibition characteristics of the electrokinetic removal of inorganic contaminants from soil due to evolution of the acidic and alkaline fronts. Process Safety and Environment Protection, 155, 343–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2021.09.030
Won, J., Kim, G., Ahn, G., Lee, J., Oh, Z., (1999). Decontamination of soil contaminated with Cs and Co ion. Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, 7.
Xu, H., Bai, J., Yang, X., Zhang, C., Yao, M., & Zhao, Y. (2022). Lab scale-study on the efficiency and distribution of energy consumption in chromium contaminated aquifer electrokinetic remediation. Environmental Technology and Innovation, 25, 102194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.102194
Xu, J., Liu, C., Hsu, P. C., Zhao, J., Wu, T., Tang, J., Liu, K., & Cui, Y. (2019). Remediation of heavy metal contaminated soil by asymmetrical alternating current electrochemistry. Nature Communications, 10, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-10472-x
Xu, S., Bian, M., Li, C., Wu, X., & Wang, Z. (2018). Effects of calcium concentration and differential settlement on permeability characteristics of bentonite-sand mixtures. Applied Clay Science, 153, 16–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2017.11.029
Yeung, A. T. (2011). Milestone developments, myths, and future directions of electrokinetic remediation. Separation and Purification Technology, 79, 124–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2011.01.022
Yeung, A. T., & Hsu, C. (2005). Electrokinetic Remediation of Cadmium-Contaminated Clay. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 131, 298–304. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9372(2005)131:2(298)
Yoo, J. C., Yang, J. S., Jeon, E. K., & Baek, K. (2015). Enhanced-electrokinetic extraction of heavy metals from dredged harbor sediment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22, 9912–9921. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4155-x
Zhang, H., Ma, Q., Su, W., & Hu, H. (2021). On the dewatering of electroosmotic soil using intermittent current incorporated with calcium chloride. Environmental Technology (united Kingdom), 42, 468–478. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2019.1634154
Zhou, J., Gan, Q., & Tao, Y. (2022). Electro-osmotic permeability model based on ions migration. Acta Geotechnica, 17, 2379–2393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-021-01175-z
Zhu, Q., Li, Y., Liu, G., Ozores-Hampton, M., (2021). Determination of carbonate concentrations in calcareous soils with common vinegar test. Edis 2021, pp. 2–4. https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-hs1262-2021
Zhu, S., Han, D., Zhou, M., & Liu, Y. (2016). Ammonia enhanced electrokinetics coupled with bamboo charcoal adsorption for remediation of fluorine-contaminated kaolin clay. Electrochimica Acta, 198, 241–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2016.03.033
Zhu, S., Zhu, D., & Wang, X. (2017). Removal of fluorine from red mud (bauxite residue) by electrokinetics. Electrochimica Acta, 242, 300–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2017.05.040
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Punjab Pakistan, for lab space and instrumentation as well as we are also grateful for funding by the Researchers Supporting Project Number (RSPD2023R766) King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Funding
Authors did not receive any direct funding for this study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
AAH: Methodology, data curation, writing and conceptualization. KK: Conceptualization. MI: Data curation, Software. AA: Validation, Writing-review and editing. LL: Conceptualization. MH: Visualization, Investigation. MYN: Software, Validation. MSM: Review and Editing. AM: Resources, Validation. AAAM: Review. All authors have read and agreed to publish the manuscript.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declared no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Hussain, A.A., Kamran, K., Imran, M. et al. Effect of experimental boundary conditions and treatment-time on the electro-desalination of soils. Environ Geochem Health 46, 63 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01830-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01830-2