Abstract
Health risk assessments of exposure to mercury (Hg) from soils via ingestion and inhalation are indispensable for Taiwanese people living in the vicinity of Hg-contaminated sites. In this study, anthropogenic soils were collected from various polluted sources in Taiwan. In vitro oral and inhalation bioaccessible fractions of Hg were analyzed to avoid from overestimating the exposure risk. Discrepancies in oral and inhalation bioaccessible levels of Hg in soils were found using different in vitro assays with different pH levels and chemical compositions. The freshly contaminated soil (soil S7) polluted by chlor-alkali production activity sampled before the site was remediated had the highest total Hg concentration of 1346 mg/kg, with the highest oral bioaccessibility of 26.2% as analyzed by SW-846 Method 1340 and inhalation bioaccessibility of 30.5% as analyzed by modified Gamble's solution. The lesser extent of aging of Hg in soil S7 increased the Hg availability for humans, which was also found based on results of a sequential extraction procedure. Results of the hazard quotient showed that soil ingestion was the main pathway causing non-carcinogenic risks for children and adults. Children were also exposed to higher risks than were adults due to higher frequencies of hand-to-mouth behaviors and lower body weights. Furthermore, hazard index results adjusted for oral and inhalation bioaccessible Hg were lower than those obtained based on the total Hg content; however, an unacceptable value of the non-carcinogenic risk (> 1) for children living near soil S7 was still observed. This study suggests that children living near sites polluted for a short period of time may suffer potential renal effects regardless of the bioaccessibility. Our findings provide suggestions for decision makers on setting new strategies for managing risks of Hg-contaminated soils in Taiwan.
Graphical abstract
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data are available from the authors with the permission of collaborators.
References
ATSDR (1999). Toxicological profile for mercury. Retrieved April 10, 2021, from https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp46.pdf
ATSDR (2012). Toxicological profile for cadmium. Retrieved April 10, 2021, from https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp5.pdf
ATSDR (2022). Toxicological profile for copper. Retrieved April 10, 2021, from https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp132.pdf
Barnett, M. O., & Turner, R. R. (2001). Bioaccessibility of mercury in soils. Soil and Sediment Contamination, 10(3), 301–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/20015891109275
Bavec, Š, & Gosar, M. (2016). Speciation, mobility and bioaccessibility of Hg in the polluted urban soil of Idrija (Slovenia). Geoderma, 273, 115–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.03.015
Bi, X., Li, Z., Sun, G., Liu, J., & Han, Z. (2015). In vitro bioaccessibility of lead in surface dust and implications for human exposure: A comparative study between industrial area and urban district. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 297, 191–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.04.074
Bloom, N. S., Preus, E., Katon, J., & Hiltner, M. (2003). Selective extractions to assess the biogeochemically relevant fractionation of inorganic mercury in sediments and soils. Analytica Chimica Acta, 479(2), 233–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-2670(02)01550-7
Boisa, N., Elom, N., Dean, J. R., Deary, M. E., Bird, G., & Entwistle, J. A. (2014). Development and application of an inhalation bioaccessibility method (IBM) for lead in the PM10 size fraction of soil. Environment International, 70, 132–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2014.05.021
Butte, W., & Heinzow, B. (2002). Pollutants in house dust as indicators of indoor contamination. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 175, 1–46.
Chang, T. C., & Yen, J. H. (2006). On-site mercury-contaminated soils remediation by using thermal desorption technology. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 128(2–3), 208–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2005.07.053
Chen, Z. S. (1991). Cadmium and lead contamination of soils near plastic stabilizing materials producing plants in northern Taiwan. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 57, 745–754. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00282938
Chen, Y. C., & Chen, M. H. (2006). Mercury levels of seafood commonly consumed in Taiwan. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, 14(4), 373–378. https://doi.org/10.38212/2224-6614.2450
Chien, M., Lin, M., Chang, J., Huang, C., Endo, G., & Suzuki, S. (2010). Distribution of mercury resistance determinants in a highly mercury polluted area in Taiwan. In N. Hamamura, S. Suzuki, S. Mendo, C. M. Barroso, H. Iwata, & S. Tanabe (Eds.), Interdisciplinary studies on environmental chemistry-biological responses to contaminants (pp. 31–36).
Clarkson, T. W., & Magos, L. (2006). The toxicology of mercury and its chemical compounds. Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 36(8), 609–662. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408440600845619
Colombo, C., Monhemius, A. J., & Plant, J. A. (2008). Platinum, palladium and rhodium release from vehicle exhaust catalysts and road dust exposed to simulated lung fluids. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 71(3), 722–730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2007.11.011
Counter, S. A., & Buchanan, L. H. (2004). Mercury exposure in children: A review. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 198(2), 209–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2003.11.032
Cruz, N., Rodrigues, S. M., Tavares, D., Monteiro, R. J. R., Carvalho, L., Trindade, T., Duarte, A. C., Pereira, E., & Römkens, F. A. M. (2015). Testing single extraction methods and in vitro tests to assess the geochemical reactivity and human bioaccessibility of silver in urban soils amended with silver nanoparticles. Chemosphere, 135, 304–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.04.071
DIN EN (1995). Safety of Toys—Part 3: Specification for Migration of Certain Elements. British Standard EN 71-3.
DIN EN (2002). Safety of Toys—Part 3: Migration of Certain Elements. British Standard EN 71-3
Diquattro, S., Castaldi, P., Ritch, S., Juhasz, A. L., Brunetti, G., Scheckel, K. G., Garau, G., & Lombi, E. (2021). Insights into the fate of antimony (Sb) in contaminated soils: Ageing influence on Sb mobility, bioavailability, bioaccessibility and speciation. Science of the Total Environment, 770, 145354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145354
Fageria, N. K., & Nascente, A. S. (2014). Management of soil acidity of South American soils for sustainable crop production. Advances in Agronomy, 128, 221–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802139-2.00006-8
Fang, F., Wang, H., & Lin, Y. (2011). Spatial distribution, bioavailability, and health risk assessment of soil Hg in Wuhu urban area, China. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 179(1), 255–265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1733-8
Franciscato, C., Goulart, F. R., Lovatto, N. M., Duarte, F. A., Flores, E. M. M., Dressler, V. L., Peixoto, N. C., & Pereira, M. E. (2009). ZnCl2 exposure protects against behavioral and acetylcholinesterase changes induced by HgCl2. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 27(5), 459–468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2009.05.002
Gee, G., & Bauder, J. (1986). Particle-size analysis In A. Klute (Ed.), Methods of soil analysis: Part 1. Physical and mineralogical methods (2nd ed., pp. 383–411).
Gil-Díaz, M., Luchsinger-Heitmann, A., García-Gonzalo, P., Alonso, J., & Lobo, M. (2020). Selecting efficient methodologies for estimation of As and Hg availability in a brownfield. Environmental Pollution, 270, 116290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116290
Glorennec, P., Bemrah, N., Tard, A., Robin, A., Le Bot, B., & Bard, D. (2007). Probabilistic modeling of young children’s overall lead exposure in France: Integrated approach for various exposure media. Environment International, 33(7), 937–945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2007.05.004
Goldman, L., & Shannon, M. (2001). Committee on Environmental Health Technical report: Mercury in the environment: Implications for pediatricians. Pediatrics, 108(1), 197–205.
Gray, J. E., Hines, M. E., Higueras, P. L., Adatto, I., & Lasorsa, B. K. (2004). Mercury speciation and microbial transformations in mine wastes, stream sediments, and surface waters at the Almadén mining district. Spain. Environmental Science and Technology, 38(16), 4285–4292. https://doi.org/10.1021/es040359d
Gray, J. E., Plumlee, G. S., Morman, S. A., Higueras, P. L., Crock, J. G., Lowers, H. A., & Witten, M. L. (2010). In vitro studies evaluating leaching of mercury from mine waste calcine using simulated human body fluids. Environmental Science and Technology, 44(12), 4782–4788. https://doi.org/10.1021/es1001133
Guney, M., Chapuis, R. P., & Zagury, G. J. (2016). Lung bioaccessibility of contaminants in particulate matter of geological origin. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(24), 24422–24434. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6623-3
Guney, M., Welfringer, B., De Repentigny, C., & Zagury, G. J. (2013). Children’s exposure to mercury-contaminated soils: Exposure assessment and risk characterization. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 65(2), 345–355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-013-9891-7
Guney, M., Bourges, C. M. J., Chapuis, R. P., & Zagury, G. J. (2017). Lung bioaccessibility of As, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn in fine fraction (< 20 μm) from contaminated soils and mine tailings. Science of the Total Environment, 579, 378–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.11.086
Han, Y., Kingston, H. M., Boylan, H. M., Rahman, G. M. M., Shah, S., Richter, R. C., Link, D. D., & Bhandari, S. (2003). Speciation of mercury in soil and sediment by selective solvent and acid extraction. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 375(3), 428–436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-002-1701-4
Hernández-Pellón, A., Nischkauer, W., Limbeck, A., & Fernández-Olmo, I. (2018). Metal (loid) bioaccessibility and inhalation risk assessment: A comparison between an urban and an industrial area. Environmental Research, 165, 140–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.04.014
Hogg, T., Stewart, J., & Bettany, J. (1978). Influence of the chemical form of mercury on its adsorption and ability to leach through soils. Journal of Environmental Quality, 7(3), 440–445. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq1978.00472425000700030029x
Hseu, Z. Y., Huang, Y. T., & Hsi, H. C. (2014). Effects of remediation train sequence on decontamination of heavy metal-contaminated soil containing mercury. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 64(9), 1013–1020. https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2014.917129
Hu, X., Zhang, Y., Luo, J., Wang, T., Lian, H., & Ding, Z. (2011). Bioaccessibility and health risk of arsenic, mercury and other metals in urban street dusts from a mega-city, Nanjing, China. Environmental Pollution, 159(5), 1215–1221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.01.037
Hung, P. C., Chang, S. H., Ou-Yang, C. C., & Chang, M. B. (2016). Simultaneous removal of PCDD/Fs, pentachlorophenol and mercury from contaminated soil. Chemosphere, 144, 50–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.08.058
Jiang, L., Zhang, R., Zhang, L., Zheng, R., & Zhong, M. (2020). Improving the regulatory health risk assessment of mercury-contaminated sites. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 402, 123493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123493
Juhasz, A. L., Weber, J., Smith, E., Naidu, R., Marschner, B., Rees, M., Rofe, A., Kuchel, T., & Sansom, L. (2009). Evaluation of SBRC-gastric and SBRC-intestinal methods for the prediction of in vivo relative lead bioavailability in contaminated soils. Environmental Science and Technology, 43(12), 4503–4509. https://doi.org/10.1021/es803238u
Juhasz, A. L., Weber, J., & Smith, E. (2011). Influence of saliva, gastric and intestinal phases on the prediction of As relative bioavailability using the Unified Bioaccessibility Research Group of Europe Method (UBM). Journal of Hazardous Materials, 197, 161–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.09.068
Julien, C., Esperanza, P., Bruno, M., & Alleman, L. Y. (2011). Development of an in vitro method to estimate lung bioaccessibility of metals from atmospheric particles. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 13(3), 621–630. https://doi.org/10.1039/C0EM00439A
Kastury, F., Smith, E., & Juhasz, A. L. (2017). A critical review of approaches and limitations of inhalation bioavailability and bioaccessibility of metal(loid)s from ambient particulate matter or dust. Science of the Total Environment, 574, 1054–1074. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.056
Kang-Yum, E., & Oransky, S. H. (1992). Chinese patent medicine as a potential source of mercury poisoning. Veterinary and Human Toxicology, 34(3), 235–238.
Kao, C. S., Wang, Y. L., Jiang, C. B., Chuang, Y. C., Chen, Y. H., Hsi, H. C., & Chien, L. C. (2022). Associations of maternal food safety-related risk perceptions and protective behaviors with daily mercury intake and internal doses of Taiwanese women and their preschool children. Environmental Research, 212, 113344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113344
Kim, K. H., Kabir, E., & Jahan, S. A. (2016). A review on the distribution of Hg in the environment and its human health impacts. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 306, 376–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.11.031
Lai, H. Y., Hseu, Z. Y., Chen, T. C., Chen, B. C., Guo, H. Y., & Chen, Z. S. (2010). Health risk-based assessment and management of heavy metals-contaminated soil sites in Taiwan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 7(10), 3595–3614. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph7103596
Lamb, D. T., Ming, H., Megharaj, M., & Naidu, R. (2009). Heavy metal (Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb) partitioning and bioaccessibility in uncontaminated and long-term contaminated soils. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 171(1–3), 1150–1158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.06.124
Li, S. W., Li, J., Li, H. B., Naidu, R., & Ma, L. (2015). Arsenic bioaccessibility in contaminated soils: Coupling in vitro assays with sequential and HNO3 extraction. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 295, 145–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.04.011
Li, J., Peng, Q., Liang, D., Liang, S., Chen, J., Sun, H., Li, S., & Lei, P. (2016). Effects of aging on the fraction distribution and bioavailability of selenium in three different soils. Chemosphere, 144, 2351–2359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.11.011
Li, F., Zhang, J., Jiang, W., Liu, C., Zhang, Z., Zhang, C., & Zeng, G. (2017). Spatial health risk assessment and hierarchical risk management for mercury in soils from a typical contaminated site, China. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 39, 923–934. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-016-9864-7
Li, X., Gao, Y., Zhang, M., Zhang, Y., Zhou, M., Peng, L., He, A., Zhang, X., Yan, X., Wang, Y., & Yu, H. (2020). In vitro lung and gastrointestinal bioaccessibility of potentially toxic metals in Pb-contaminated alkaline urban soil: The role of particle size fractions. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 190, 110151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.110151
Liu, J., Zhang, A., Chen, Y., Zhou, X., Zhou, A., & Cao, H. (2020). Bioaccessibility, source impact and probabilistic health risk of the toxic metals in PM2.5 based on lung fluids test and Monte Carlo simulations. Journal of Cleaner Production, 283, 124667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124667
Ljung, K., Oomen, A., Duits, M., Selinus, O., & Berglund, M. (2007). Bioaccessibility of metals in urban playground soils. Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part A, 42(9), 1241–1250. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934520701435684
McLean, E. O. (1982). Soil pH and lime requirement. In A.L. Page (Ed.), Methods of soil analysis: Part 2. Chemical and microbiological properties (2nd ed., pp. 199–224).
Merget, R., & Rosner, G. (2001). Evaluation of the health risk of platinum group metals emitted from automotive catalytic converters. Science of the Total Environment, 270(1–3), 165–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(00)00788-9
Midander, K., Pan, J., Wallinder, I. O., & Leygraf, C. (2007). Metal release from stainless steel particles in vitro—Influence of particle size. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 9(1), 74–81. https://doi.org/10.1039/B613919A
Moraes-Silva, L., Siqueira, L. F., Oliveira, V. A., Oliveira, C. S., Ineu, R. P., Pedroso, T. F., Fonseca, M. M., & Pereira, M. E. (2014). Preventive effect of CuCl2 on behavioral alterations and mercury accumulation in central nervous system induced by HgCl2 in newborn rats. Journal of Biochemical and Molecular Toxicology, 28(7), 328–335. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbt.21569
Neculita, C. M., Zagury, G. J., & Deschênes, L. (2005). Mercury speciation in highly contaminated soils from chlor-alkali plants using chemical extractions. Journal of Environmental Quality, 34(1), 255–262. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2005.0255a
Nelson, D. W., & Sommers, L.E. (1996). Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. In D.L. Sparks, A.L. Page, P.A. Helmke, R.H. Loeppert, P. N. Soltanpour, M. A. Tabatabai, C. T. Johnston, & M. E. Sumner (Eds.), Methods of soil analysis: Part 3 chemical methods (2nd edn., pp. 539–579).
Norman, M., & Johansson, C. (2006). Studies of some measures to reduce road dust emissions from paved roads in Scandinavia. Atmospheric Environment, 40(32), 6154–6164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.05.022
NTP (1993). Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of mercuric chloride (CAS no. 7487-94-7) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (gavage studies). Retrieved April 10, 2021, from https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/htdocs/lt_rpts/tr408.pdf
Oomen, A. G., Hack, A., Minekus, M., Zeijdner, E., Cornelis, C., Schoeters, G., Verstraete, W., Van de Wiele, T., Wragg, J., Rompelberg, C. J. M., Sips, A. J. A. M., & Van Wijnen, J. H. (2002). Comparison of five in vitro digestion models to study the bioaccessibility of soil contaminants. Environmental Science and Technology, 36(15), 3326–3334. https://doi.org/10.1021/es010204v
Özkaynak, H., Glen, G., Cohen, J., Hubbard, H., Thomas, K., Phillips, L., & Tulve, N. (2022). Model based prediction of age-specific soil and dust ingestion rates for children. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology, 32(3), 472–480. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-021-00406-5
Park, J. D., & Zheng, W. (2012). Human exposure and health effects of inorganic and elemental mercury. Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, 45(6), 344. https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.2012.45.6.344
Paustenbach, D. J., Bruce, G. M., & Chrostowski, P. (1997). Current views on the oral bioavailability of inorganic mercury in soil: Implications for health risk assessments. Risk Analysis, 17(5), 533–544. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.1997.tb00895.x
Pelfrêne, A., Cave, M. R., Wragg, J., & Douay, F. (2017). In vitro investigations of human bioaccessibility from reference materials using simulated lung fluids. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(2), 112. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14020112
Qin, C., Du, B., Yin, R., Meng, B., Fu, X., Li, P., Zhang, L., & Feng, X. (2020). Isotopic fractionation and source appointment of methylmercury and inorganic mercury in a paddy ecosystem. Environmental Science and Technology, 54(22), 14334–14342. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c03341
Reis, A. T., Rodrigues, S. M., Davidson, C. M., Pereira, E., & Duarte, A. C. (2010). Extractability and mobility of mercury from agricultural soils surrounding industrial and mining contaminated areas. Chemosphere, 81(11), 1369–1377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.09.030
Rodriguez, R. R., Basta, N. T., Casteel, S. W., & Pace, L. W. (1999). An in vitro gastrointestinal method to estimate bioavailable arsenic in contaminated soils and solid media. Environmental Science and Technology, 33(4), 642–649. https://doi.org/10.1021/es980631h
Rodrigues, S. M., Coelho, C., Cruz, N., Monteiro, R. J. R., Henriques, B., Duarte, A. C., Römkens, P. F. A. M., & Pereira, E. (2014). Oral bioaccessibility and human exposure to anthropogenic and geogenic mercury in urban, industrial and mining areas. Science of the Total Environment, 496, 649–661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.06.115
Ruby, M. V., Davis, A., Link, T. E., Schoof, R., Chaney, R. L., Freeman, G. B., & Bergstrom, P. (1993). Development of an in vitro screening test to evaluate the in vivo bioaccessibility of ingested mine-waste lead. Environmental Science and Technology, 27, 2870–2877.
Ruby, M. V., Davis, A., Schoof, R., Eberle, S., & Sellstone, C. M. (1996). Estimation of lead and arsenic bioavailability using a physiologically based extraction test. Environmental Science and Technology, 30(2), 422–430. https://doi.org/10.1021/es950057z
Safruk, A. M., Berger, R. G., Jackson, B. J., Pinsent, C., Hair, A. T., & Sigal, E. A. (2015). The bioaccessibility of soil-based mercury as determined by physiological based extraction tests and human biomonitoring in children. Science of the Total Environment, 518, 545–553. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.02.089
Sahin, D., Erdolu, C. O., Karadenizli, S., Kara, A., Bayrak, G., Beyaz, S., Demir, B., & Ates, N. (2016). Effects of gestational and lactational exposure to low dose mercury chloride (HgCl2) on behaviour, learning and hearing thresholds in WAG/Rij rats. EXCLI Journal, 15, 391–402. https://doi.org/10.17179/excli2016-315
Schaider, L. A., Senn, D. B., Brabander, D. J., McCarthy, K. D., & Shine, J. P. (2007). Characterization of zinc, lead, and cadmium in mine waste: Implications for transport, exposure, and bioavailability. Environmental Science and Technology, 41(11), 4164–4171. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0626943
Singh, L. P., Parkash, B., & Singhvi, A. K. (1998). Evolution of the lower Gangetic Plain landforms and soils in West Bengal, India. CATENA, 33(2), 75–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(98)00066-6
Smith, E., Scheckel, K., Miller, B. W., Weber, J., & Juhasz, A. L. (2014). Influence of in vitro assay pH and extractant composition on As bioaccessibility in contaminated soils. Science of the Total Environment, 473, 171–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.12.030
Sun, G., Li, Z., Bi, X., Chen, Y., Lu, S., & Yuan, X. (2013). Distribution, sources and health risk assessment of mercury in kindergarten dust. Atmospheric Environment, 73, 169–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.03.017
Taiwan EPA (1985). Survey of heavy metals in the soil samples (in Chinese).
Taiwan EPA. (2005). Mercury in water-cold vapor atomic absorption spectroscopy (in Chinese). Retrieved April 6, 2021, from https://www.epa.gov.tw/DisplayFile.aspx?FileID=4330B5BB7D0D998A
Taiwan EPA (2018). The total content of heavy metal in soils analyzed by microwave-assisted aqua regia digestion (in Chinese). Retrieved April 6, 2021, from https://www.epa.gov.tw/DisplayFile.aspx?FileID=557573A1E8DD4DFE
Tepanosyan, G., Maghakyan, N., Sahakyan, L., & Saghatelyan, A. (2017). Heavy metals pollution levels and children health risk assessment of Yerevan kindergartens soils. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 142, 257–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.04.013
Thorpe, A., & Harrison, R. M. (2008). Sources and properties of non-exhaust particulate matter from road traffic: A review. Science of the Total Environment, 400(1–3), 270–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.06.007
Turaga, R. M. R., Howarth, R. B., & Borsuk, M. E. (2014). Perceptions of mercury risk and its management. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 20(5), 1385–1405. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2013.858526
U.S. EPA (2008). Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook. Retrieved April 8, 2021, from https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/risk/recordisplay.cfm?deid=199243
U.S. EPA (2012). Standard operating procedure for an in vitro bioaccessibility assay for lead in soil. Retrieved April 6, 2021, from https://semspub.epa.gov/work/HQ/174533.pdf
U.S. EPA (2017). Method 1340: In Vitro Bioaccessibility Assay for Lead in Soil. Retrieved April 6, 2021, from https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/method_1340_update_vi_final_3-22-17.pdf
van der Kallen, C. C., Gosselin, M., & Zagury, G. J. (2020). Oral and inhalation bioaccessibility of metal(loid)s in chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-contaminated soils: Assessment of particle size influence. Science of the Total Environment, 734, 139412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139412
Walsh, C., Distefano, M. D., Moore, M. J., Shewchuk, L. M., & Verdine, G. (1988). Molecular basis of bacterial resistance to organomercurial and inorganic mercuric salts. The FASEB Journal, 2(2), 124–130. https://doi.org/10.1096/fasebj.2.2.3277886
Wang, Y. L., Tsou, M. C., Liao, H. T., Hseu, Z. Y., Dang, W., Hsi, H. C., & Chien, L. C. (2020). Influence of soil properties on the bioaccessibility of Cr and Ni in geologic serpentine and anthropogenically contaminated non-serpentine soils in Taiwan. Science of the Total Environment, 714, 136761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136761
Wang, Y. L., Tsou, M. C. M., Pan, K. H., Özkaynak, H., Dang, W., Hsi, H. C., & Chien, L. C. (2021). Estimation of soil and dust ingestion rates from the stochastic human exposure and dose simulation soil and dust model for children in Taiwan. Environmental Science and Technology, 55(17), 11805–11813. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c00706
Welfringer, B., & Zagury, G. J. (2009). Evaluation of two in vitro protocols for determination of mercury bioaccessibility: Influence of mercury fractionation and soil properties. Journal of Environmental Quality, 38(6), 2237–2244. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2008.0478
WHO (2003). Elemental mercury and inorganic mercury compounds: Human health aspects.
Wiseman, C. L., & Zereini, F. (2014). Characterizing metal(loid) solubility in airborne PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 in Frankfurt, Germany using simulated lung fluids. Atmospheric Environment, 89, 282–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.02.055
Wragg, J., Cave, M., Basta, N., Brandon, E., Casteel, S., Denys, S., Gron, C., Oomen, A., Reimer, K., Tack, K., & Van De Wiele, T. (2011). An inter-laboratory trial of the unified BARGE bioaccessibility method for arsenic, cadmium and lead in soil. Science of the Total Environment, 409(19), 4016–4030. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.05.019
Xie, S. Y., Lao, J. Y., Wu, C. C., Bao, L. J., & Zeng, E. Y. (2018). In vitro inhalation bioaccessibility for particle-bound hydrophobic organic chemicals: Method development, effects of particle size and hydrophobicity, and risk assessment. Environment International, 120, 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.08.015
Yang, Y. K., Zhang, C., Shi, X. J., Tao, L. I. N., & Wang, D. Y. (2007). Effect of organic matter and pH on mercury release from soils. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 19(11), 1349–1354. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(07)60220-4
Yuan, Y. R., Han, X. Z., Li, L. J., & Li, N. (2012). Land use effects on soil aggregation and total organic carbon and polysaccharides in aggregates of a Chinese Mollisol. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment, 10(3–4), 1386–1391.
Zalups, R. K. (2000). Molecular interactions with mercury in the kidney. Pharmacological Reviews, 52(1), 113–144.
Zagury, G. J., Bedeaux, C., & Welfringer, B. (2009). Influence of mercury speciation and fractionation on bioaccessibility in soils. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 56(3), 371–379. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-008-9205-7
Zhao, L., Anderson, C. W., Qiu, G., Meng, B., Wang, D., & Feng, X. (2016). Mercury methylation in paddy soil: Source and distribution of mercury species at a Hg mining area, Guizhou Province, China. Biogeosciences, 13(8), 2429–2440. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-2429-2016
Zheng, S., Han, Y., Liu, D., Ni, R., Wu, Z., & Shi, R. (2019). Influence of soil properties on the Hg bioaccessibility in polluted soils investigated by in vitro digestion approaches. Environmental Chemistry, 38(12), 2665–2671. https://doi.org/10.7524/j.issn.0254-6108.2019051304
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the funding organization of this research, Environmental Protection Administration, Taiwan.
Funding
This work was financially supported by the Environmental Protection Administration, Taiwan under grant no. EPA-104-GA01-03-A138.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Y-LW, L-CL, and M-CMT. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Y-LW, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Consent to publish
Consent was given by all the authors.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, YL., Tsou, MC.M., Lai, LC. et al. Oral and inhalation bioaccessibility of mercury in contaminated soils and potential health risk to the kidneys and neurodevelopment of children in Taiwan. Environ Geochem Health 45, 6267–6286 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01633-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01633-5