Abstract
The quality of drinking water and agricultural soil significantly affects the health of residents of the area. The quality of groundwater used as drinking and irrigation water along with agricultural soil of an agri-intensive region of the Sutlej River Basin (SRB), Punjab (India), has been investigated in the present paper to further access their impacts on human health. The quality parameters studied are pH, conductivity, cations, anions and trace elements/heavy metals. The spatio-distribution maps of major contaminates have been made. The distribution of major existing groundwater and agricultural soil contaminants has also been illustrated using inverse distance weighting interpolation technique. Further, the Pearson correlation matrix and principal component analysis (PCA) have been applied to explore the correlation and source apportionment analysis for the contaminants. Finally, the health risk assessment study has also been performed. The results showed elevated levels [compared to BIS acceptable limits] of bicarbonate and total hardness in more than 90% groundwater samples, while the concentration of Se and U exceeded in around 25% samples. Spatial distribution maps showed a non-homologous distribution pattern for most of the heavy metals except Zn, indicating their different origins. The significant existence of Se and U in groundwater and low content in soils indicated their geogenic origin. The Gibbs diagram suggested that rock–water interaction is the primary process controlling the chemical evolution of the groundwater in the region. The PCA indicated that Cu, Mn, Pb, NO3− and SO42− in groundwater have an anthropogenic origin, whereas Fe, As and U are mainly of geogenic origin. Significant positive correlations of heavy metals with Fe and Al in soils indicated scavenging of these elements by Fe/Al-oxyhydroxides minerals. Based on SAR, Na%, PI and corrosivity ratio analysis, it can be concluded that groundwater of the region is suitable for irrigation purposes Further, health risk assessment study indicated Cr and As are the possible cancer risk posing elements from both soil and groundwater. Non-carcinogenic risk assessment showed that cumulative exposure (hazard index—1.98) of U (HQ 1.21), NO3− (HQ 0.37) and F− (HQ 0.34) might pose harmful impacts to residents through groundwater ingestion in the long term. Although currently the contaminants in the groundwater–soil system may not pose any human health risks, continuous long-term monitoring is required to keep a check on the changes in their quality with time.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adimalla, N. (2020). Heavy metals pollution assessment and its associated human health risk evaluation of urban soils from Indian cities: A review. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 42(1), 173–190.
Ahada, C. P., & Suthar, S. (2018). Assessing groundwater hydrochemistry of Malwa Punjab, India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 11(2), 17.
Al Kuisi, M., & Abdel-Fattah, A. (2010). Groundwater vulnerability to selenium in semi-arid environments: Amman Zarqa Basin, Jordan. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 32(2), 107–128.
Ali, H., Khan, E., & Ilahi, I. (2019). Environmental chemistry and ecotoxicology of hazardous heavy metals: environmental persistence, toxicity, and bioaccumulation. Journal of Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6730305.
Anim-Gyampo, M., Anornu, G. K., Appiah-Adjei, E. K., & Agodzo, S. K. (2019). Quality and health risk assessment of shallow groundwater aquifers within the Atankwidi basin of Ghana. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 9, 100217.
APHA. (2012). Standard methods for the examination of water and waste (Vol. 22, pp. 4–72). Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.
Atafar, Z., Mesdaghinia, A., Nouri, J., Homaee, M., Yunesian, M., Ahmadimoghaddam, M., et al. (2010). Effect of fertilizer application on soil heavy metal concentration. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 160(1–4), 83.
Ayers R. S., & Westcot, D. W. (1976). Water quality for agriculture. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29. Rome: FAO, p. 97.
Ayers, R. S., & Westcot, D. W. (1985). Water quality for agriculture. Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29. FAO, Rome.
Bajaj, M., Eiche, E., Neumann, T., Winter, J., & Gallert, C. (2011). Hazardous concentrations of selenium in soil and groundwater in North-West India. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 189(3), 640–646.
Bajwa, B. S., Kumar, S., Singh, S., Sahoo, S. K., & Tripathi, R. M. (2017). Uranium and other heavy toxic elements distribution in the drinking water samples of SW-Punjab, India. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences, 10(1), 13–19.
BIS. (2012). Indian Standards Specifications for Drinking Water. IS: 10500. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Bouaroudj, S., Menad, A., Bounamous, A., Ali-Khodja, H., Gherib, A., Weigel, D. E., et al. (2019). Assessment of water quality at the largest dam in Algeria (Beni Haroun Dam) and effects of irrigation on soil characteristics of agricultural lands. Chemosphere, 219, 76–88.
Burri, N. M., Weatherl, R., Moeck, C., & Schirmer, M. (2019). A review of threats to groundwater quality in the anthropocene. Science of the Total Environment, 684, 136–154.
Census of India. (2011). District Census Handbook Fatehgarh Sahib District. Retrieved October 15, 2019, from http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/03/0306_PART_A_DCHB_FATEHGARH%20SAHIB.pdf.
CGWB (Central Ground Water Board). (2017). Report on aquifer mapping and management plan, Punjab. North Western Region, Chandigarh. Retrieved September 15, 2019, from http://cgwb.gov.in/AQM/NAQUIM_REPORT/Punjab/Fatehgarh%20Sahib.pdf.
Cui, Y., & Weng, L. (2013). Arsenate and phosphate adsorption in relation to oxides composition in soils: LCD modeling. Environmental Science and Technology, 47(13), 7269–7276.
Dhillon, K. S., & Dhillon, S. K. (2003). Quality of underground water and its contribution towards selenium enrichment of the soil–plant system for a seleniferous region of northwest India. Journal of Hydrology, 272(1–4), 120–130.
Dhillon, K. S., & Dhillon, S. K. (2014). Development and mapping of seleniferous soils in northwestern India. Chemosphere, 99, 56–63.
Dhillon, K. S., & Dhillon, S. K. (2016). Selenium in groundwater and its contribution towards daily dietary Se intake under different hydrogeological zones of Punjab, India. Journal of Hydrology, 533, 615–626.
Doneen, L. D. (1964). Notes on water quality in Agriculture Published as a Water Science and Engineering Paper 4001. Department of Water Science and Engineering, University of California.
Doyi, I., Essumang, D., Gbeddy, G., Dampare, S., Kumassah, E., & Saka, D. (2018). Spatial distribution, accumulation and human health risk assessment of heavy metals in soil and groundwater of the Tano Basin, Ghana. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 165, 540–546.
Eiche, E., Bardelli, F., Nothstein, A. K., Charlet, L., Göttlicher, J., Steininger, R., et al. (2015). Selenium distribution and speciation in plant parts of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) from a seleniferous area of Punjab, India. Science of the Total Environment, 505, 952–961.
ENVIS Centre Punjab. (2018). Fertilizer consumption in Punjab (1960-2017). Retrieved October 2, 2019, from http://punenvis.nic.in/index3.aspx?sslid=5862&subsublinkid=4973&langid=1&mid=1.
Farooq, S. H., Chandrasekharam, D., Dhanachandra, W., & Ram, K. (2019). Relationship of arsenic accumulation with irrigation practices and crop type in agriculture soils of Bengal Delta, India. Applied Water Science, 9(5), 119.
Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS. Thousand Oaks: Sage publications.
Gibbs, R. J. (1970). Mechanisms controlling world water chemistry. Science, 170, 795–840.
Gupta, S., Gupta, C., & Grewal, D. S. (2013). Air pollution in Punjab with special reference to MandiGobindgarh and surrounding areas: An analytical study. IOSR. Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT), 2319, 2402.
Hamilton, E. M., Lark, R. M., Young, S. D., Bailey, E. H., Sakala, G. M., Maseka, K. K., et al. (2020). Reconnaissance sampling and determination of hexavalent chromium in potentially-contaminated agricultural soils in Copperbelt Province, Zambia. Chemosphere, 247, 125984.
Hundal, H. S. (2011). Geochemistry and assessment of hydrogeochemical processes in groundwater in the southern part of Bathinda district of Punjab, Northwest India. Environmental Earth Sciences, 64(7), 1823–1833.
ICAR. (1981) Report no- 441 on Soil Survey and Land use plan. Retrieved August 12, 2019, from http://14.139.123.73/bhoomigeoportal/publication_pdf/district_publication/Patiala.pdf.
IS. (1987). Methods of test for soils (Second revision). Determination of pH value. IS: 2720 (Part 26)-1987, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
IS. (2000). Determination of the specific electrical conductivity of soils method of test. IS: 14767-2000, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
IS. (2003). Methods of sampling and test (physical and chemical) for water and wastewater. IS: 3025 (Part 24)-1985-Reaffirmed 2003, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Jackson, M. L. (Ed.). (1973). Soil chemical analysis. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
Jamal, A., Delavar, M. A., Naderi, A., Nourieh, N., Medi, B., & Mahvi, A. H. (2019). Distribution and health risk assessment of heavy metals in soil surrounding a lead and zinc smelting plant in Zanjan, Iran. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 25(4), 1018–1033.
Jiang, W., Hou, Q., Yang, Z., Yu, T., Zhong, C., Yang, Y., et al. (2014). Annual input fluxes of heavy metals in agricultural soil of Hainan Island, China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 21(13), 7876–7885.
Jurgens, B. C., Fram, M. S., Belitz, K., Burow, K. R., & Landon, M. K. (2010). Effects of groundwater development on uranium: Central Valley, California, USA. Groundwater, 48(6), 913–928.
Kaur, G., Kumar, R., Mittal, S., Sahoo, P. K., & Vaid, U. (2019). Ground/drinking water contaminants and cancer incidence: A case study of rural areas of South West Punjab, India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1705145.
Kaur, M., Kumar, A., Mehra, R., & Kaur, I. (2020). Quantitative assessment of exposure of heavy metals in groundwater and soil on human health in Reasi district, Jammu and Kashmir. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 42(1), 77–94.
Kaur, T., Bhardwaj, R., & Arora, S. (2017). Assessment of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes using hydrochemical studies in Malwa region, southwestern part of Punjab, India. Applied Water Science, 7(6), 3301–3316.
Keesstra, S. D., Geissen, V., Mosse, K., Piiranen, S., Scudiero, E., Leistra, M., et al. (2012). Soil as a filter for groundwater quality. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 4(5), 507–516.
Khan, S., Shah, I. A., Muhammad, S., Malik, R. N., & Shah, M. T. (2015). Arsenic and heavy metal concentrations in drinking water in Pakistan and risk assessment: A case study. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 21(4), 1020–1031.
Kumar, A., Rout, S., Narayanan, U., Mishra, M. K., Tripathi, R. M., Singh, J., et al. (2011). Geochemical modelling of uranium speciation in the subsurface aquatic environment of Punjab State in India. Journal of Geology and Mining Research, 3(5), 137–146.
Kumar, H., Sahoo, P. K., & Mittal, S. (2020a). Sustainable remediation of heavy metals: A review of current status and its future prospects. In M. P. Shah, S. R. Couto, & V. K. Rudra (Eds.), Edited book “New trends in removal of heavy metals from industrial waste water”. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Kumar, P., Thakur, P. K., Bansod, B. K., & Debnath, S. K. (2016a). Assessment of the effectiveness of DRASTIC in predicting the vulnerability of groundwater to contamination: A case study from Fatehgarh Sahib district in Punjab, India. Environmental Earth Sciences, 75(10), 879.
Kumar, P., Thakur, P. K., Bansod, B. K., & Debnath, S. K. (2018a). Groundwater: a regional resource and a regional governance. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 20(3), 1133–1151.
Kumar, R., Kumar, R., Mittal, S., Arora, M., & Babu, J. N. (2016b). Role of soil physicochemical characteristics on the present state of arsenic and its adsorption in alluvial soils of two agri-intensive region of Bathinda, Punjab, India. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 16(2), 605–620.
Kumar, R., Mittal, S., Sahoo, P. K., & Sahoo, S. K. (2020b). Source apportionment, chemometric pattern recognition and health risk assessment of groundwater from southwestern Punjab, India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00518-1.
Kumar, R., Vaid, U., & Mittal, S. (2018b). Water crisis: issues and challenges in Punjab. In V. P. Singh, S. Yadav, & R. N. Yadava (Eds.), Water resources management (pp. 93–103). Singapore: Springer.
Li, P., Lin, C., Cheng, H., Duan, X., & Lei, K. (2015). Contamination and health risks of soil heavy metals around a lead/zinc smelter in southwestern China. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 113, 391–399.
Li, P., Wu, J., Qian, H., Zhang, Y., Yang, N., Jing, L., et al. (2016). Hydrogeochemical characterization of groundwater in and around a wastewater irrigated forest in the southeastern edge of the Tengger Desert, Northwest China. Exposure and Health, 8(3), 331–348.
Maas, E. V., & Hoffman, G. J. (1977). Crop salt tolerance. In K. K. Tanji (Ed.), Agricultural salinity assessment and management manual (pp. 262–304). New York: ASCE.
Mittal, S., Kaur, G., & Vishwakarma, G. S. (2014). Effects of environmental pesticides on the health of rural communities in the Malwa Region of Punjab, India: A review. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 20(2), 366–387.
Olsen, S. R. (1954). Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extraction with sodium bicarbonate USDA Circular, Vol. 939, pp. 1–19. Gov. Printing Office, Washington DC.
Rafique, N., & Tariq, S. R. (2016). Distribution and source apportionment studies of heavy metals in soil of cotton/wheat fields. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 188(5), 309.
Rahman, M. A., Hasegawa, H., Rahman, M. M., Rahman, M. A., & Miah, M. A. M. (2007). Accumulation of arsenic in tissues of rice plant (Oryza sativa L.) and its distribution in fractions of rice grain. Chemosphere, 69(6), 942–948.
Raman, V. (1985). Impact of corrosion in the conveyance and distribution of water. Journal of Indian Water Works Association, 15(11), 115–121.
Ravindra, K., & Mor, S. (2019). Distribution and health risk assessment of arsenic and selected heavy metals in Groundwater of Chandigarh, India. Environmental Pollution, 250, 820–830.
Richards, L. A. (1954). Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils (Vol. 78(2), p. 154). Philadelphia: LWW.
Rinklebe, J., Antoniadis, V., Shaheen, S. M., Rosche, O., & Altermann, M. (2019). Health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in soils along the Central Elbe River, Germany. Environment International, 126, 76–88.
Sahoo, P. K., Dall’Agnol, R., Salomão, G. N., Junior, J. S. F., et al. (2020). Source and background threshold values of potentially toxic elements in soils by multivariate statistics and GIS-based mapping: a high density sampling survey in the Parauapebas basin, Brazilian Amazon. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 42(1), 255–282.
Sahoo, P. K., Equeenuddin, S. M., & Powell, M. A. (2016a). Trace elements in soils around coal mines: Current scenario, impact and available techniques for management. Current Pollution Reports, 2(1), 1–14.
Sahoo, P. K., Kim, K., & Powell, M. A. (2016b). Managing groundwater nitrate contamination from livestock farms: Implication for nitrate management guidelines. Current Pollution Report, 2, 178–187.
Sharma, C., Mahajan, A., & Kumar Garg, U. (2016). Fluoride and nitrate in groundwater of south-western Punjab, India—occurrence, distribution and statistical analysis. Desalination and Water Treatment, 57(9), 3928–3939.
Sharma, N., & Singh, J. (2016). Radiological and chemical risk assessment due to high uranium contents observed in the ground waters of Mansa District (Malwa region) of Punjab state, India: An area of high cancer incidence. Exposure and Health, 8(4), 513–525.
Sharma, S., Kaur, I., & Nagpal, A. K. (2017). Assessment of arsenic content in soil, rice grains and groundwater and associated health risks in human population from Ropar wetland, India, and its vicinity. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24(23), 18836–18848.
Sharma, S., Kaur, I., & Nagpal, A. K. (2018). Estimation of arsenic, manganese and iron in mustard seeds, maize grains, groundwater and associated human health risks in Ropar wetland, Punjab, India, and its adjoining areas. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 190(7), 385.
Sharma, S., Kumar, R., Sahoo, P. K., & Mittal, S. (2020). Geochemical relationship and translocation mechanism of arsenic in rice plants: A case study from health prone south west Punjab (p. 100333). India: Groundwater for Sustainable Development.
Sharma, S., Nagpal, A. K., & Kaur, I. (2019). Appraisal of heavy metal contents in groundwater and associated health hazards posed to human population of Ropar wetland, Punjab, India and its environs. Chemosphere, 227, 179–190.
Shrivastava, B. K. (2015). Elevated uranium and toxic elements concentration in groundwater in Punjab state of India: extent of the problem and risk due to consumption of unsafe drinking water. Water Quality, Exposure and Health, 7(3), 407–421.
Singh, C. K., Shashtri, S., Singh, A., & Mukherjee, S. (2011). Quantitative modeling of groundwater in Satluj River basin of Rupnagar district of Punjab using remote sensing and geographic information system. Environmental Earth Sciences, 62(4), 871–881.
Singh, S., Rani, A., Mahajan, R. K., & Walia, T. P. S. (2003). Analysis of uranium and its correlation with some physico-chemical properties of drinking water samples from Amritsar, Punjab. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 5(6), 917–921.
Srivastava, S. K. (2019). Assessment of groundwater quality for the suitability of irrigation and its impacts on crop yields in the Guna district, India. Agricultural Water Management, 216, 224–241.
USDA-NRCS. (2014). United State Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Services. Soil Electrical Conductivity–Soil Quality Kit (Guides for Educators). Retrieved August 12, 2019, from http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_053280.pdf.
USEPA. (1989). Risk assessment guidance for superfund, Vol I, Human health evaluation manual (Part A) Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington, DC.
USEPA. (1997). Exposure factors handbook, volume 1: General factors. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development.
USEPA. (2002). Supplemental guidance for developing soil screening levels for superfund sites. Washington, DC: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response.
USEPA. (2011). Exposure factors handbook edition (Final); 2011. Retrieved August 15, 2019, from http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/risk/recordisplay.cfm?deid=236252.
USEPA. (2016). Regional Screening Levels (RSLs)—User’s guide. Retrieved August 15, 2019, from https://www.epa.gov/risk/regional-screening-levels-rslsusers-guide-may-2016.
Varol, M. (2011). Assessment of heavy metal contamination in sediments of the Tigris River (Turkey) using pollution indices and multivariate statistical techniques. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 195, 355–364.
Vetrimurugan, E., Brindha, K., Elango, L., & Ndwandwe, O. M. (2017). Human exposure risk to heavy metals through groundwater used for drinking in an intensively irrigated river delta. Applied Water Science, 7(6), 3267–3280.
Walkley, A. (1947). A critical examination of a rapid method for determining organic carbon in soils-Effect of variations in digestion conditions and of inorganic soil constituents. Soil Science, 63, 251–264.
Weintraub, M. N., & Schimel, J. P. (2003). Interactions between carbon and nitrogen mineralization and soil organic matter chemistry in arctic tundra soils. Ecosystems, 6(2), 0129–0143.
WHO. (1996). World Health Organization Guidelines for drinking water quality.1996, 2nd ed., Vol. 2, Health Criteria and Supporting Information, WHO, Geneva.
WHO. (2011). Guidelines for drinking water quality (4th ed., Vol. 1). Geneva: World Health Organization Geneva.
Wilcox, L. V. (1955). Classification and use of irrigation waters. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture.
Wongsasuluk, P., Chotpantarat, S., Siriwong, W., & Robson, M. (2014). Heavy metal contamination and human health risk assessment in drinking water from shallow groundwater wells in an agricultural area in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 36(1), 169–182.
World Bank Collection. (2016). Fertilizer consumption (kilograms per hectare of arable land. Retrieved October 2, 2019, from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.CON.FERT.ZS?end=2016&start=2002&view=chart.
Zhou, P., & Gu, B. (2005). Extraction of oxidized and reduced forms of uranium from contaminated soils: Effects of carbonate concentration and pH. Environmental Science and Technology, 39(12), 4435–4440.
Zia, M. H., Watts, M. J., Niaz, A., Middleton, D. R., & Kim, A. W. (2017). Health risk assessment of potentially harmful elements and dietary minerals from vegetables irrigated with untreated wastewater, Pakistan. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 39(4), 707–728.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Board of Research in Nuclear Science (BRNS), Department of Atomic Energy, (DAE-BRNS), Mumbai, for providing financial assistance. We acknowledge the Central Instrumentation Facility, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, and DST–FIST support for monitoring and analysis work. We are also extremely thankful to local people for cooperation during the time of sampling work. We highly acknowledge the contribution of Prof. V. K. Garg, Department of Environment Science and Technology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India, for technical guidance and proofreading of this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kumar, R., Mittal, S., Peechat, S. et al. Quantification of groundwater–agricultural soil quality and associated health risks in the agri-intensive Sutlej River Basin of Punjab, India. Environ Geochem Health 42, 4245–4268 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00636-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00636-w