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A review of the public health impacts of unconventional natural gas development

Environmental Geochemistry and Health volume 40, pages 1–57 (2018)Cite this article

Abstract

The public health impact of hydraulic fracturing remains a high profile and controversial issue. While there has been a recent surge of published papers, it remains an under-researched area despite being possibly the most substantive change in energy production since the advent of the fossil fuel economy. We review the evidence of effects in five public health domains with a particular focus on the UK: exposure, health, socio-economic, climate change and seismicity. While the latter would seem not to be of significance for the UK, we conclude that serious gaps in our understanding of the other potential impacts persist together with some concerning signals in the literature and legitimate uncertainties derived from first principles. There is a fundamental requirement for high-quality epidemiological research incorporating real exposure measures, improved understanding of methane leakage throughout the process, and a rigorous analysis of the UK social and economic impacts. In the absence of such intelligence, we consider it prudent to incentivise further research and delay any proposed developments in the UK. Recognising the political realities of the planning and permitting process, we make a series of recommendations to protect public health in the event of hydraulic fracturing being approved in the UK.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Staffordshire, Stoke-on-Trent, UK

    P. J. Saunders

  2. Queen Mary University of London, London, UK

    D. McCoy

  3. West Midlands Public Health Training Scheme, Birmingham, UK

    R. Goldstein

  4. carolan57 Ltd, Birmingham, UK

    A. T. Saunders

  5. Medact, London, UK

    A. Munroe

Authors
  1. P. J. Saunders
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  2. D. McCoy
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  3. R. Goldstein
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  4. A. T. Saunders
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  5. A. Munroe
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to P. J. Saunders.

Appendices

Appendix 1: Glossary/acronyms

AMCV:

Air monitoring comparison values

ATSDR:

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

BTEX:

Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene

CHD:

Coronary heart defects

CIs:

Confidence intervals

CNS:

Central nervous system

CO:

Carbon monoxide

CS2 :

Carbon disulphide

DBP:

Disinfection by-products

DEP:

Department of Environmental Protection

EDC:

Endocrine disrupting chemical

EPA:

Environmental Protection Agency

EUR:

Estimated ultimate recovery

FPH:

Faculty of Public Health

GHG:

Greenhouse gas

GI:

Gastrointestinal

GIS:

Geographic information system

GWP:

Global warming potential

H2S:

Hydrogen sulphide

HAPs:

Hazardous air pollutants

HI:

Hazard index

HVHF:

High-volume hydraulic fracturing

IRIS:

Integrated risk information system

LCA:

Life cycle analysis

LHV:

Lower heating value

LUST:

Leaking underground storage tanks

MCL:

Maximum content level

ML:

Local magnitude

Mw:

Magnitude scale

NIOSH:

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

NMHCs:

Non-methane hydrocarbons

NORM:

Naturally occurring radioactive materials

NOx:

Oxides of nitrogen

NTD:

Neural tube defects

OEL:

Occupational exposure limit

OSHA:

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

ONG:

Oil and natural gas

PAHs:

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

PEL:

Permissible exposure limit

PM:

Particulate matter

PSE Healthy Energy:

Physicians, Scientists and Engineers for Healthy Energy

PSM:

Propensity score matching

REL:

Recommended exposure limit sure limit

SGA:

Small for gestational age

SIRs:

Standardised incidence ratios

SO2 :

Sulphur dioxide

TCEQ:

Texas Commission on Environmental Quality

TLV:

Threshold limit value

UOG:

Unconventional oil and gas extraction

VOCs:

Volatile organic compounds

WTP:

Willing to pay

WtW:

Well to wire

WWTP:

Wastewater treatment plant

Appendix 2: Search strategy

  1. 1.

    UNGD: Shale gas, shale gas development, shale gas drill$, shale gas exploration, shale gas industry, shale gas production, unconventional gas, unconventional gas extraction, frack$, hydraulic fracturing, fracturing, high volume hydraulic fracturing, HVHF

  2. 2.

    Exposure: Air quality, pollution, water, land, contamination, toxin$, PAH$, benzene, methane, metal$, diesel fume$, VOC$, endocrine disrupt$, PM, particulate matter, particulate$, naturally occurring radioactive mat$, fume$

  3. 3.

    Health: Public health, cancer$, neurological, neurobehavioral, reproductive, Low birth weight, birth outcome$, congenital heart defect$, neural tube defect$, oral cleft$, pre term birth$, stress, occupational health, mental health, mental wellbeing, conception, infertility

  4. 4.

    Nuisance: Noise, dust, odour$, odor$, light, traffic, congestion

  5. 5.

    Climate change: Climate change, green house gas$, GHGs, methane, energy policy, fuel policy, energy security

  6. 6.

    Economic: Econom$, local economy, water sustainability, income, employment, disposable income, fuel poverty, rural economy$

  7. 7.

    Seismicity: Seism$, earthquake$, tremor$

1 and 2, 1 and 3, 1 and 4, 1 and 5, 1 and 6, 1 and 7.

Databases

The following databases were searched:

  • Ovid Medline, Economic and Social Research Council, Centre for Economic Policy Research.

Citation searches

Reference lists were examined for papers not identified in searches.

Grey literature/internet/key informants

Includes advice from recognised experts in the field and domestic and international government and key institutional websites.

Inclusion/exclusion

Inclusion:

  • All: English language, no year restrictions, international, national, regional or local effects, exclusively or significantly related to, or specifically considers HVHF and any associated infrastructure, development, operation or legacy activities/impacts.

  • Exposure: human, all environmental media, measure of exposure (direct or indirect).

  • Health: clinically diagnosed and self-reported symptoms.

  • Nuisance/economic: direct or indirect economic, environmental, nuisance and/or social impacts.

  • Climate change/policy: all GHGs, impact on compliance with fuel/energy and climate change policies and commitments.

Exclusion: animal studies, non-English, anonymous pieces, studies of UNGD technology, environmental exposures based on estimates with no measured data, levels of contamination in waste products with no assessment or estimation of exposure potential, traffic-related accidents (the UK industry will not require the level of heavy vehicle support reported in the USA and elsewhere), non-peer-reviewed commentaries, opinions, editorials, letters to the editor.

Paper review and data extraction

Data extracted to a pre-defined data extraction table. A 10% sample of included papers independently assessed by two reviewers and unresolved anomalies referred to the other authors for resolution.

Appendix 3: Excluded papers

  Paper Reason for rejection
1. Abrahams LS et al. Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions From U.S. Liquefied Natural Gas Exports: Implications for End Uses. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (5), pp 3237–3245 LNG exports
2. Ahmadov R, McKeen S, Trainer M, Banta R, Brewer A, Brown S, et al. 2015. Understanding high wintertime ozone pollution events in an oil- and natural gas-producing region of the western US. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 15:411–429 Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source
3. Albertson JD et al. A Mobile Sensing Approach for Regional Surveillance of Fugitive Methane Emissions in Oil and Gas Production. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2016, 50 (5), pp 2487–249 Describes method for detecting methane
4. Alexander BM et al. The Development and Testing of a Prototype Mini-Baghouse to Control the Release of Respirable Crystalline Silica from Sand Movers. J Occup Environ Hyg. 2016, 13(8):628–38 Testing emission control
5. Allard DJ. Pennsylvania’s technologically enhanced, naturally occurring radioactive material experiences and studies of the oil and gas industry. Health Phys 2015;108(2):178 Presentation
6. Allen DT et al. Methane Emissions from Process Equipment at Natural Gas Production Sites in the United States: Pneumatic Controllers Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (1), pp 633–640 Principally natural gas but includes conventional and unconventional and oil. No distinction of dominant source
7. Alvarez, Ramón A, et al. Greater Focus Needed on Methane Leakage from Natural Gas Infrastructure. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109 (2012): 6435–6440 Examines changes to vehicle fleet as well as use for electricity
8. Asche F et al. Energy Policy, 2012, vol. 47, issue C, pages 117–124 Not an issue for UK
9. Aucott ML and Melillo JM. A Preliminary Energy Return on Investment Analysis of Natural Gas from the Marcellus Shale. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 17: 668–679 Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits
10. Bern CR, Clark ML, Schmidt TS, Holloway JM, McDougal RR. 2015. Soil disturbance as a driver of increased stream salinity in a semiarid watershed undergoing energy development. J. Hydrol. 524:123–136; doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2015.02.020 Website link. Refers to soil disturbance of any type
11. Binnion, M. 2012. How the technical differences between shale gas and conventional gas projects lead to a new business model being required to be successful. Marine and Petroleum Geology. 31(1): 3–7 Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits
12. Birdsell DT, Rajaram H, Dempsey D, Viswanathan HS. 2015. Hydraulic fracturing fluid migration in the subsurface: A review and expanded modeling results. Water Resour. Res. 51:7159–7188; doi:10.1002/2015WR017810 Simulation
13. Bolden AL et al. New Look at BTEX: Are Ambient Levels a Problem? Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (9), pp 5261–5276 Review of non-cancer health effects of BTEX
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15. Bowen, Z. H., et al. (2015), Assessment of surface water chloride and conductivity trends in areas of unconventional oil and gas development—Why existing national data sets cannot tell us what we would like to know, Water Resour. Res., 51, 704–71 Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source
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19. British Columbia Oil and Gas Commission 2012 Not peer-reviewed
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21. Brown DR, Lewis C, Weinberger BI. 2015. Human exposure to unconventional natural gas development: A public health demonstration of periodic high exposure to chemical mixtures in ambient air. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A 50: 460–472 Hypothetical
22. Brown SPA et al. Resources for the Future. Natural gas: a bridge to a low-carbon future? Resources 2009;Issue Brief 09-11 Think tank briefing
23. Busch C and Gimon E. 2014. Natural Gas versus Coal: Is Natural Gas Better for the Climate? The Electricity Journal, 27 (7): 97–111 Natural gas in general
24. Burkhart 2013 Potential radon release during fracturing in Colorado. Proceedings of the 2013 International AARST Symposium Conference proceedings
25. Carlton AG, Little E, Moeller M, Odoyo S, Shepson PB. 2014. The Data Gap: Can a Lack of Monitors Obscure Loss of Clean Air Act Benefits in Fracking Areas? Environ. Sci. Technol. 48:893–894; doi:10.1021/es405672t Methodological
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27. Cathles, L. M. (2012), Assessing the greenhouse impact of natural gas, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 13, Q06013, doi:10.1029/2012GC004032 Natural gas in general
28. Caulton DR et al.Methane Destruction Efficiency of Natural Gas Flares Associated with Shale Formation Wells. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2014, 48 (16), pp 9548–9554 Efficiency of flaring
29. Chabudzinski L, Chmiel S, Michalczyk Z. 2015. Metal content in the waters of the upper Sanna River catchment (SE Poland): condition associated with drilling of a shale gas exploration wellbore. Environ. Earth Sci. 74:6681–6691; doi:10.1007/s12665-015-4668-0 Exploratory borewell
30. Craddock,H. Shale gas in Europe: The chemical challenge. Materials World. 2014 22 2:41 Magazine article
31. Darbouche H. MENA’s Growing Natural Gas Deficit and the Issue of Domestic Prices”, Energy Strategy Reviews, 2013, 2 (1): 116–121 Not an issue in the UK
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37. Fanchi JR et al. Probabilistic Decline Curve Analysis of Barnett, Fayetteville, Haynesville, and Woodford Gas Shales. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 2013, 50 109:308–311 Production modelling
38. Fedak F et al. Birth Outcomes and Natural Gas Development: Methodological Limitations http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408647 volume 122 | number 9 | September 2014 Letter
39. Field RA et al. Air quality concerns of unconventional oil and natural gas production. Environmental Science. Processes and Impacts 2014;16(5):954–969 Theoretical
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41. Finkel ML and Law A. The rush to drill for natural gas: a public health cautionary tale. 2011 101, 5: 784–785 Commentary
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43. Freeman CM et al. A numerical study of performance for tight gas and shale gas reservoir systems Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 108: 22–39 Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits
44. Gallagher ME et al. Natural Gas Pipeline Replacement Programs Reduce Methane Leaks and Improve Consumer Safety. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett., 2015, 2 (10), pp 286–291 Remedial action
45. Gao J and Fengqi U - Shale Gas Supply Chain Design and Operations toward Better Economic and Life Cycle Environmental Performance: MINLP Model and Global Optimization Algorithm. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., 2015, 3 (7), pp 1282–1291 Describes LCA model development-no comparison with other energy sources
46. Gassiat C et al. 2013. Hydraulic fracturing in faulted sedimentary basins: Numerical simulation of potential contamination of shallow aquifers over long time scales. Water Resour. Res. 49:8310–8327; doi:10.1002/2013WR014287 Model to identify conditions needed for slow migration
47. Gentner DR et al. Emissions of organic carbon and methane from petroleum and dairy operations in California’s San Joaquin Valley. Emissions of organic carbon and methane from petroleum and dairy operations in California’s San Joaquin Valley, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 4955–4978, doi:10.5194/acp-14-4955-2014, 2014 Not HVHF
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49. Goldstein BD The importance of public health agency independence: Marcellus shale gas drilling in Pennsylvania. Am J Public Health. 2014,104(2):e13–5 Lack of public health input to risk assessment
50. Goldstein BD Kriesky J and Pavliakova B Environ Health Perspect. 2012 Apr; 120(4): 483–486 Review of expertise on advisory panels
51. Goodwin S; Carlson K; Knox K; Douglas C; Rein L. Water intensity assessment of shale gas resources in the Wattenberg field in northeastern Colorado. Environmental Science & Technology. 48(10):5991–5, 2014 Efficient water usage-not relevant to UK
52. Gracceva F and Zeniewski P. Exploring the uncertainty around potential shale gas development – A global energy system analysis based on TIAM (TIMES Integrated Assessment Model) Energy 2013, 57:443–457 Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits
53. Graham J, Irving J, Tang X, Sellers S, Crisp J, Horwitz D, et al. 2015. Increased traffic accident rates associated with shale gas drilling in Pennsylvania. Accident Analysis & Prevention 74:203–209; doi:10.1016/j.aap.2014.11.003 Traffic accidents
54. Hammes, U et al. Unconventional reservoir potential of the upper Permian Zechstein Group: a slope to basin sequence stratigraphic and sedimentological evaluation of carbonates and organic-rich mudrocks, Northern Germany. Environ Earth Sci 2013, 70: 3797. doi:10.1007/s12665-013-2724-1 Resource estimates
55. Harriss R et al. Using Multi-Scale Measurements to Improve Methane Emission Estimates from Oil and Gas Operations in the Barnett Shale Region, Texas. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (13), pp 7524–7526 Viewpoint: oil and gas
56. Heilweil VM, Stolp BJ, Kimball BA, Susong DD, Marston TM, Gardner PM. 2013. A Stream-Based Methane Monitoring Approach for Evaluating Groundwater Impacts Associated with Unconventional Gas Development. Groundwater 51:511–524; doi:10.1111/gwat.12079 Sampling method
57. Helmig - Highly Elevated Atmospheric Levels of Volatile Organic Compounds in the Uintah Basin, Utah Environ. Sci. Technol., 2014, 48 (9), pp 4707–4715 Gas field but no reference to HVHF
58. Hibbard PJ and Shatzki. The Interdependence of Electricity and Natural Gas: Current Factors and Future Prospects. The Electricity Journal 2012, 25(4):6–17 Not relevant
59. Holahan R and Arnold G. An institutional theory of hydraulic fracturing policy. Ecological Economics 2013, 94 127–134 Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits
60. Howard T et al. Sensor transition failure in the high flow sampler: Implications for methane emission inventories of natural gas infrastructure. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 2015 65(7):856–62 Implications of sensor failure
61. Howarth, R.W., Santoro, R. & Ingraffea, A. Climatic Change (2012) 113: 537. doi:10.1007/s10584-012-0401-0 Response to Cathles paper
62. Ikonnikova S et al. Factors influencing shale gas production forecasting: Empirical studies of Barnett, Fayetteville, Haynesville, and Marcellus Shale plays. 2015, Factors influencing shale gas production forecasting: Empirical studies of Barnett, Fayetteville, Haynesville, and Marcellus Shale plays. Economics of Energy & Environmental Policy 2015, 4, (1): 19–35 Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits
63. Jeong S et al. Spatially Explicit Methane Emissions from Petroleum Production and the Natural Gas System in California. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2014, 48 (10): 5982–5990 Not HVHF focused
64. Johnson Dr et al. Methane Emissions from Leak and Loss Audits of Natural Gas Compressor Stations and Storage Facilities. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (13): 8132–8138 Compares UNG wells with CVNG wells
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66. Kaiser MJ. Haynesville shale play economic analysis. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 2012, 82–83:75–89 Economic viability of this play
67. Kaiser MJ. Profitability assessment of Haynesville shale gas well. Energy 2012, 50 38(1):315–330 Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits
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73. Kerschke DI and Schulz H. The shale gas potential of Tournaisian, Visean, and Namurian black shales in North Germany: baseline parameters in a geological context. Environ Earth Sci 2013, 70: 3817. doi:10.1007/s12665-013-2745-9 Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits
74. Kopald, D. E. The Conference on Corporate Interference with Science and Health: fracking, food and wireless: genesis, rationale, and results. 2013 28 (4):145–158 Conference proceedings
75. Korfmacher KS et al. Public health and high volume hydraulic fracturing. New Solut. 2013;23(1):13–31. doi: 10.2190/NS.23.1.c Public health policy discussion
76. Kort EA et al. Four corners: The largest US methane anomaly viewed from space. Geophysical Research Letters 2014, 41(19): 6898–6903 Gas, coal and coalbed methane
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78. Kovats S et al. The health implications of fracking. The Lancet 2014, 383 (9919): 757–758 Commentary on conference
79. Krzyzanowski - Environmental pathways of potential impacts to human health from oil and gas development in northeast British Columbia, Canada Environmental Reviews, 2012, 20(2): 122–134, 10 Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source
80. Lamb BK et al. Direct Measurements Show Decreasing Methane Emissions from Natural Gas Local Distribution Systems in the United States. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (8): 5161–5169 Distribution systems—all gas doesn’t specify UNG
81. Lan X, Talbot R, Laine P, Torres A, Lefer B, Flynn J. 2015. Atmospheric Mercury in the Barnett Shale Area, Texas: Implications for Emissions from Oil and Gas Processing. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49:10692–10700 Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source
82. Lauver LS Environmental health advocacy: an overview of natural gas drilling in northeast Pennsylvania and implications for pediatric nursing J Pediatr Nurs. 2012 Aug;27(4):383–9 Guidance for nurses on evaluating issue
83. Law A et al. Public Health England’s draft report on shale gas extraction. BMJ 2014;348:g2728 Editorial
84. Lee J. The regional economic impact of oil and gas extraction in Texas. Energy Policy, 2015, (56) 87:60–71 University briefing paper
85. Lee, L., Wooldridge, P. J., deGouw, J., Brown, S. S., Bates, T. S., Quinn, P. K., and Cohen, R. C.: Particulate organic nitrates observed in an oil and natural gas production region during wintertime, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 9313–9325 Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source
86. Lipscomb,C. A. Wang,Y. Kilpatrick,S. J. Unconventional shale gas development and real estate valuation issues. 2012 42 (2): 161–175 Unavailable
87. Llewellyn GT, Dorman F, Westland JL, Yoxtheimer D, Grieve P, Sowers T, et al. 2015. Evaluating a groundwater supply contamination incident attributed to Marcellus Shale gas development. PNAS 201420279; doi:10.1073/pnas.1420279112 Pre-drilling salinisation sources
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89. Lyon DR et al. Constructing a Spatially Resolved Methane Emission Inventory for the Barnett Shale Region. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (13): 8147–8157 Oil and gas inventory estimates
90. Mackie P, Johnman C, Sim F. 2013. Hydraulic fracturing: a new public health problem 138 years in the making? Public Health 127:887–888 Editorial
91. Macy TR et al. Carbon Footprint Analysis of Source Water for Hydraulic Fracturing: A Case Study of Mine Water Versus Freshwater. Water Environ 2015, 34: 20 Not relevant to UK
92. Marchese AJ et al. Methane Emissions from United States Natural Gas Gathering and Processing. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (17): 10718–10727 All natural gas
93. McCarron GP, King D. 2014. Unconventional natural gas development: economic salvation or looming public health disaster? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 38:108–109 Commentary
94. McCawley M. Air Contaminants Associated with Potential Respiratory Effects from Unconventional Resource Development Activities. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2015, 36(3):379–87 No measures and uses traffic volumes as metric
95. McCubbin DR et al. Quantifying the health and environmental benefits of wind power to natural gas. Energy Policy 2013, 53: 429–441 Reject-wind power
96. McCubbin –D and Sovacool BK. The Hidden Factors That Make Wind Energy Cheaper than Natural Gas in the United States. Electricity Journal, 24 (9): 84–95 Wind energy
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98. McGlade C et al. Unconventional gas – A review of regional and global resource estimates. Energy 2013, 55: 571–584. Resource estimates
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103. Mitchell AL and Casman EA. Economic Incentives and Regulatory Framework for Shale Gas Well Site Reclamation in Pennsylvania. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2011, 45 (22): 9506–9514 Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits
104. Mitchell AL et al. Measurements of Methane Emissions from Natural Gas Gathering Facilities and Processing Plants: Measurement Results. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (5): 219–3227 All natural gas
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146. Subramanian R et al. Methane Emissions from Natural Gas Compressor Stations in the Transmission and Storage Sector: Measurements and Comparisons with the EPA Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program Protocol. Environmental Science and Technology 2015, 49(5): 3252–3261 Identification of super-emitters and comparison of emissions with EPA emissions
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Saunders, P.J., McCoy, D., Goldstein, R. et al. A review of the public health impacts of unconventional natural gas development. Environ Geochem Health 40, 1–57 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-016-9898-x

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Keywords

  • Hydraulic fracturing
  • Fracking
  • Shale gas
  • Public health