Skip to main content

Pollution of River Mahaweli and farmlands under irrigation by cadmium from agricultural inputs leading to a chronic renal failure epidemic among farmers in NCP, Sri Lanka

Environmental Geochemistry and Health volume 33, pages 439–453 (2011)Cite this article

Abstract

Chronic renal failure (CRF) associated with elevated dietary cadmium (Cd) among farming communities in the irrigated agricultural area under the River Mahaweli diversion scheme has reached a significantly higher level of 9,000 patients. Cadmium, derived from contaminated phosphate fertilizer, in irrigation water finds its way into reservoirs, and finally to food, causing chronic renal failure among consumers. Water samples of River Mahaweli and its tributaries in the upper catchment were analyzed to assess the total cadmium contamination of river water and the possible source of cadmium. Except a single tributary (Ulapane Stream, 3.9 μg Cd/l), all other tested tributaries carried more than 5 μg Cd/l, the maximum concentration level accepted to be safe in drinking water. Seven medium-sized streams carrying surface runoff from tea estates had 5.1–10 μg Cd/l. Twenty larger tributaries (Oya), where the catchment is under vegetable and home garden cultivation, carried 10.1–15 μg Cd/l. Nine other major tributaries had extremely high levels of Cd, reaching 20 μg Cd/l. Using geographic information system (GIS), the area in the catchment of each tributary was studied. The specific cropping system in each watershed was determined. The total cadmium loading from each crop area was estimated using the rates and types of phosphate fertilizer used by the respective farmers and the amount of cadmium contained in each type of fertilizer used. Eppawala rock phosphate (ERP), which is mostly used in tea estates, caused least pollution. The amount of cadmium in tributaries had a significant positive correlation with the cadmium loading of the cropping system. Dimbula Tea Estate Stream had the lowest Cd loading (495.9 g/ha/year), compared with vegetable-growing areas in Uma Oya catchment with 50,852.5 g Cd/ha/year. Kendall’s τ rank correlation value of total Cd loading from the catchment by phosphate fertilizer used in all crops in the catchment to the Cd content in the tributaries was +0.48. This indicated a major contribution by the cropping system in the upper catchment area of River Mahaweli to the eventual Cd pollution of river water. Low soil pH (4.5–5.2), higher organic matter content (2–3%), and 18–20 cmol/kg cation exchange capacity (CEC) in upcountry soil have a cumulative effect in the easy release of Cd from soil with the heavy surface runoff in the upcountry wet zone. In view of the existing water conveyance system from upcountry to reservoirs in North Central Province (NCP) through diversion of River Mahaweli, in addition to their own nonpoint pollution by triple superphosphate fertilizer (TSP), this demands a change in overall upper catchment management to minimize Cd pollution through agriculture inputs to prevent CRF due to elevated dietary cadmium among NCP farmers.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

References

  • Athuraliya, T. N. C., Abeysekara, T., Kumarasiri, R., Abeysekara, C., Gooneratne, A., & Bandara, P. (2003). A baseline study on early renal diseases in a selected community of the North-Central Province of Sri Lanka. Research report, Faculty of Medicine. Sri Lanka: University of Peradeniya.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandara, J. M. R. S., Senevirathna, D. M. A. N., Dasanayake, D. M. R. S. B., Herath, V., Bandara, J. M. R. P., Abeysekara, T., et al. (2008). Chronic renal failure among farm families in cascade irrigation systems in Sri Lanka associated with elevated dietary cadmium levels in rice and freshwater fish (Tilapia). Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 30, 465–478.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bandara, J. M. R. S., Wijewardena, H. V. P., Liyanege, J., Upul, M. A., & Bandara, J. M. U. A. (2010). Chronic renal failure in Sri Lanka caused by elevated dietary cadmium: Trojan horse of the green revolution. Toxicology Letters, 198, 33–39.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blennerhassett, J. D. (1998). Factors affecting phosphate concentrations in surface and subsurface runoff from steep east coast hill country. A thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Applied Science, Department of Soil Science, Massey University.

  • De Zoysa, T. (2002). Water quality of Parakrama Samudraya (reservoir). Dissertation, Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

  • DoC, Sri Lanka Trade Reports. (2007). www.doc.gov.lk/web/an_onsri_trade.php. Accessed 1st Sept 2010.

  • EPA-USA. (2000). Technology transfer network, air toxic website—cadmium compound (A). http://www.epa.gov./ttn/atw/hlthe/cadmium.html. Accessed 23 Oct 2009.

  • Gomes, P. C., Fontes, M. P. F., da Silva, A. G., Mendonca, E. S., & Netto, A. R. (2001). Selectivity sequence and competitive adsorption of heavy metals by Brazilian soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 65, 1115–1121.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, A. E., Clesceri, L. S., & Eaton, A. D. (Eds.) (1992). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater (18th ed.), 2005. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association and Water Environment Federation.

  • Health Fund. (2009). http://www.healthfund.gov.lk. Accessed 23 Oct 2009.

  • Herath, K. R. P. K., Illeperuma, O. A., Dharmagunawardhane, H. A., & Haller, K. J. (2005). Environmental health risk for the chronic renal failure in Sri Lanka. Paper presented at the 31st congress on science and technology of Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand, Satya Wacanan Christian University, Indonesia.

  • Jayamanna, D. (2009). Ayurvedic research on kidney ailment in the NCP. The Island 28(292).

  • Jayathilake, J., & Bandara, J. M. R. S. (1989). Pesticide use by vegetable farmers: case study in a multiple cropping system in Sri Lanka. FAO Quarterly Newsletter, Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission, 32(2), 28–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krachler, R., Jirsa, F., & Ayromlou, S. (2005). Factors influencing the dissolved iron input by river water to the open ocean. BiogeoScience, 2, 311–315.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lathif, M. A., & Upali, W. S. P. Y. (2007). Fertilizer recommendations for horticultural crops: Upcountry vegetables. Peradeniya, Sri Lanka: HORDI, Department of Agriculture.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liyanege, C. E., Thabrew, M. I., & Kuruppuarachchi, D. S. P. (2000). Nitrate pollution in ground water of Kalpitiya. Journal of the National Science Council of Sri Lanka, 28(2), 101–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loganathan, P., & Hedley, M. J. (1997). Downward movement of cadmium and phosphorous from phosphate fertilizers in a pasture soil in New Zealand. Environmental Pollution, 95(3), 319–324.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MAHAWELI. (1988). Projects & Programme 1983 and 1988. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka.

    Google Scholar 

  • NEDECO. (1979). Mahaweli Ganga development programme implementation strategy study. Annexes A to G. Colombo: Mahaweli Development Board and NEDECO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Onyatta, J. O., Huang, P. M. (2008). The influence of potassium chloride on cadmium release from selected tropical soils. Department of Soil Science, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK, S7 N 5A8, http://Canadanatres.psu.ac.th/Link/SoilCongress/bdd/symp6/738-t.pdf.

  • Perera, W. (2006). Water pollution by pesticides. Paper presented at the seminar on Impact of agriculture on Sri Lankan environment and remedial measures by the integration of IK with modern technology, Kandy, Sri Lanka.

  • Piyasiri, S. (1995). Eutrophication and blue-green algal problem in Kotmale reservoir in Sri Lanka. In K. H. Timotius & F. Golthenboth (Eds.), Tropical limnology (Vol. 2, pp. 161–169).

  • Premarathna, H. M. P. L. (2006). Soil and crop contamination by toxic trace elements. M.Phil Thesis, PGIA, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

  • Premarathna, H. M. P. L., Hettiarachchci, G. M., & Indraratne, S. P. (2005). Accumulation of cadmium in intensive vegetable growing soils in the up-country. Tropical Agriculture Research, 17, 93–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soil Science Society of Sri Lanka (1999). Soils of the wetzone of Sri Lanka. In Mapa, R. B., Somasiri, S. & Nagarajah, S. (Eds.), Morphology, characterization and classification. Special publication no.1 (pp. 183). Colombo.

  • Lee, S.-Z., Herberte, A., Huang, C. P., Sparks, D. L., Sanders, P., & Peijnenburg, W. G. M. (1996). Predicting soil–water partition coefficients for cadmium. Environmental Science and Technology, 30(12), 3418–3424.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sukreeyapongse, O., Holm, P. E., Strobel, B. W., Panichsakpatana, S., Magid, J., & Hansen, H. C. B. (2002). pH-dependent release of cadmium, copper, and lead from natural and sludge-amended soils. Journal of Environment Quality, 31, 1901–1909.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • UNDP/FAO. (1969). Mahaweli Basin of Sri Lanka (presented by S. S. de Silva). FAO Corporate Document Repository. Fisheries and Aquaculture Department.

  • US Environmental Protection Agency. (1983). Metals (atomic absorption methods) sample handling and preservation. In USEPA (Ed.), Methods for chemical analysis of water and wastes (pp. 58–61). EPA-600/4-79-020, Ohio, USA.

  • Wessa, P. (2009). Kendall tau rank correlation (v1.0.10) in Free software (v1.1.23-r4). Office for Research Development and Education. URL: http://www.wessa.net/rwasp_kendall.wasp/.

  • Wickramaarachchi, W. D. N. (2005). Irrigation water quality along the cascade system in the north east dry zone of Sri Lanka. Dissertation, Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

  • Williams, C. H., & David, D. J. (1973). The effect of superphosphate on the cadmium content of soils and plants. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 11(1), 43–56. doi:10.1071/SR9730043.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Authors are grateful to Mr. K.A. Kahandawa of IRIED, COMPAS Netherlands-Sri Lanka for the financial assistance provided for the project. The logistic support given by the Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture and the Department of Agriculture Biology, Faculty of Agriculture is gratefully acknowledged. We thank Prof. Janitha Liyange and Mr. M.A. Upul of Department of Chemistry of University of Kelaniya, for the graphite furnace AAS analysis of water samples.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Agricultural Biology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, 20400, Sri Lanka

    J. M. R. S. Bandara, H. V. P. Wijewardena, Y. M. A. Y. Bandara & R. G. P. T. Jayasooriya

  2. School of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia

    H. Rajapaksha

Authors
  1. J. M. R. S. Bandara
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. H. V. P. Wijewardena
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Y. M. A. Y. Bandara
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. R. G. P. T. Jayasooriya
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. H. Rajapaksha
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to J. M. R. S. Bandara.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bandara, J.M.R.S., Wijewardena, H.V.P., Bandara, Y.M.A.Y. et al. Pollution of River Mahaweli and farmlands under irrigation by cadmium from agricultural inputs leading to a chronic renal failure epidemic among farmers in NCP, Sri Lanka. Environ Geochem Health 33, 439–453 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-010-9344-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-010-9344-4

Keywords

  • Phosphate fertilizer
  • Cadmium from fertilizer
  • Chronic renal failure
  • Cadmium loading
  • Cadmium in tributaries
  • Cadmium mobility