Abstract
Literature that investigates the factors underlying arithmetic problem-solving achievement extensively evaluates the cognitive components, such as working memory (WM) and processing speed, at the basis of this acquisition. Recently, studies have shown that also the emotional factors, such as math anxiety (MA), could play a crucial role in the resolution of arithmetic problem-solving even during the first years of formal education. In this study, we tested 145 fourth-grade students to evaluate the possible combined effect of cognitive (i.e., WM, processing speed) and emotional (i.e., math anxiety) factors in untimed arithmetical problem-solving achievement. Regression analysis showed that MA contributed significantly to explain arithmetic problem-solving achievement even after having accounted for the cognitive abilities (WM and processing speed). In addition, the comparison between high-MA and low-MA children showed that the former had decreased performance in arithmetical problem-solving and WM tasks. On the whole, data seemed to corroborate the findings concerning the crucial role of math anxiety on math achievement even in untimed math tasks. Findings are discussed in terms of math educational context, and they underline the need to take into consideration also the emotional factors—apart from the cognitive skills—when developing interventions on math achievement.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Acevedo Nistal, A., Van Dooren, W., Clarebout, G., Elen, J., & Verschaffel, L. (2009). Conceptualising, investigating and stimulating representational flexibility in mathematical problem solving and learning: A critical review. ZDM, 41, 627–636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-009-0189-1
Ashcraft, M. H. (2002). Math anxiety: Personal, educational, and cognitive consequences. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 181–185. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00196
Ashcraft, M. H., & Faust, M. W. (1994). Mathematical anxiety and mental arithmetic performance: An exploratory investigation. Cognition and Emotions, 8, 97–125. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00042
Ashcraft, M. H., & Kirk, E. P. (2001). The relationship among working memory, math anxiety, and performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 224–237. https://doi.org/10.1037//0096-3445.130.2.224
Ashcraft, M. H., Kirk, E. P., & Hopko, D. (1998). On the cognitive consequences of math anxiety. In C. Donlan (Ed.), The development of mathematical skill (pp. 175–196). Hove: Erlbaum.
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Baddeley, A. D. (1996). Exploring the central executive. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 49, 5–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/713755608
Baddley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (pp. 47–89). New York: Academic Press.
Beilock, S. L., & Carr, T. H. (2005). When high-powered people fail: Working memory and ‘choking under pressure’ in math. Psychological Science, 16, 101–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00789.x.
Beilock, S. L. (2008). Math performance in stressful situations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 339–343. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00602.x
Beilock, S. L., & Carr, T. H. (2005). When high-powered people fail: Working memory and “coking under pressure” in math. Psychological Science, 16, 101–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00789.x
Bizzaro, M., Giofrè, D., Girelli, L., & Cornoldi, C. (2018). Arithmetic, working memory, and visuospatial imagery abilities in children with poor geometric learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 62, 79–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.01.013
Bull, R., & Johnston, R. S. (1997). Children’s arithmetical difficulties: Contributions from processing speed, item identification, and short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 65, 1–24.
Bull, R., & Sherif, G. (2001). Executive functioning as a predictor of children’s mathematics ability: Inhibition, switching, and working memory. Developmental Neuropsychology, 19(3), 273–293.
Cain-Caston, M. (1993). Parent and students toward mathematics as they related to third grade mathematics achievement. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 20, 96–101.
Cargnelutti, E., Tomasetto, C., & Passolunghi, M. C. (2017a). How is anxiety related to math performance in young students? A longitudinal study of grade 2 to grade 3 children. Cognition and Emotion, 31, 755-764. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2016.1147421
Cargnelutti, E., Tomasetto, C., & Passolunghi, M. C. (2017b). The interplay between affective and cognitive factors in shaping early proficiency in mathematics. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 8-9, 28–36.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2017.10.002
Cornoldi, C., Drusi, S., Tencati, C., Giofrè, D., & Mirandola, C. (2012). Problem solving and working memory updating difficulties in a group of poor comprehenders. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 11, 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1891/1945-8959.11.1.39
Cornoldi, C., & Giofrè, D. (2014). The crucial role of working memory in intellectual functioning. European Psychologist, 19, 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000183
D’Amico, A., & Passolunghi, M. C. (2009). Naming speed and effortful and automatic inhibition in children with arithmetic learning disabilities. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 170–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2009.01.001
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19, 450–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6
De Beni, R., Palladino, P., Pazzaglia, F., & Cornoldi, C. (1998). Increases in intrusion errors and working memory deficit of poor comprehension. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 51, 305–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/713755761
Demetriou, A., Spanoudis, G., Shayer, M., van der Ven, S., Brydges, C. R., Kroesbergen, E., ... Swansong, H. L. (2014). Relations between speed, working memory, and intelligence from preschool to adulthood: Structural equation modeling of 14 studies. Intelligence, 46, 107–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2014.05.013
De Smedt, B., Verschaffel, L., & Ghesquière, P. (2009). The predictive value of numerical magnitude comparison for individual differences in mathematics achievement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 103(4), 469–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2009.01010
Dossey, A., Mullis, I. V. S., Lindquist, M. M., & Chambers, D. (1988). The mathematics report card. Are we measuring up? Trends and achievement based on the 1986 national assessment. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
Dougherty, C. (2003). Numeracy, literacy, and earnings: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Economics of Education Review, 22, 511–521. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7757(03)00040-2
Dowker, A., Bennett, K., & Smith, L. (2012). Attitudes to mathematics in primary school children. Child Developmental Research, 2012, Article ID 124939. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/124939
Dowker, A., Sarkar, A., & Looi, Y. C. (2016). Mathematics anxiety: What have we learned in 60 years? Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00508
Eysenck, M. W., & Calvo, M. G. (1992). Anxiety and performance: The processing efficiency theory. Cognition and Emotions, 6, 409–434. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699939208409696
Faust, M. W., Ashcraft, M. H., & Fleck, D. E. (1996). Mathematics anxiety effects in simple and complex addition. Mathematical Cognition, 2, 25–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/135467996387534
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Compton, D. L., Powell, S. R., Seethaler, P. M., Capizzi, A. M., ... Fletcher, J. M. (2006). The cognitive correlates of third-grade skill in arithmetic, algorithmic computation, and arithmetic word problems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 29–43. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.29
Fuchs, L. S., Geary, D. C., Compton, D. L., Fuchs, D., Hamlett, C. L., Seethaler, P. M., ... Schatschneider, C. (2010). Do different types of school mathematics development depend on different constellations of numerical versus general cognitive abilities? Developmental Psychology, 46, 1731–1746. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020662
Fürst, A. J., & Hitch, G. J. (2000). Separate roles for executive and phonological components of working memory in mental arithmetic. Memory and Cognition, 28, 774–782. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03198412
Geary, D. C., Hamson, C. O., & Hoard, M. K. (2000). Numerical and arithmetical cognition: A longitudinal study of process and concept deficits in children with learning disability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 77, 236–263. https://doi.org/10.1006/jecp.2000.2561
Geary, D. C., Hoard, M. K., Byrd-Craven, J., & De Soto, M. C. (2004). Strategy choices in simple and complex addition: Contributions of working memory and counting knowledge for children with mathematical disability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 88, 121–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2004.03.002
Giofrè, D., Borella, E., & Mammarella, I. C. (2017). The relationship between intelligence, working memory, academic self-esteem, and academic achievement. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 29, 731–747. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2017.1310110
Haase, V. G., Júlio-Costa, A., Pinheiro-Chagas, P., Oliveira, L. D. F. S., Micheli, L. R., & Wood, G. (2012). Math self-assessment, but not negative feelings, predict mathematics performance of elementary school children. Child Development Research, 2012, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/982672
Hembree, R. (1990). The nature, effects and relief of mathematics anxiety. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, 21, 33–46. https://doi.org/10.12691/education-2-4-7
Hitch, G., & McAuley, E. (1991). Working memory in children with specific learning disabilities. British Journal of Psychology, 82, 375–386. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1991.tb02406.x
Hoffmann, B. (2010). “I think I can, but I’m afraid to try”: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and mathematics anxiety in mathematics problem solving efficiency. Learning and Individual Differences, 20, 276–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.02.001
Hopko, D. (2003). Confirmatory factor analysis of the math anxiety rating scale-revised. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63, 336–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164402251041
Karagiannakis, G., Baccaglini-Frank, A., & Papadatos, Y. (2014). Mathematical learning difficulties subtypes classification. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00057
Krinzinger, H., Kaufmann, L., & Willmes, K. (2009). Math anxiety and math ability in early school years. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 27, 2016–2225. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282908330583
Logie, R. H., Gilhooly, K. J., & Wynn, V. (1994). Counting on working memory in arithmetic problem solving. Memory and Cognition, 22, 395–410. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200866
Ma, X., & Xu, J. (2004). The causal ordering of mathematics anxiety and mathematics achievement: A longitudinal panel analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 165–179. https://doi.org/10.12691/education-2-4-7
Mammarella, C. I., Caviola, S., Giofré, D., & Szűcs, D. (2017). The underlying structure of visuospatial working memory in children with mathematical learning disability. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 36(2), 220–235. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12202
Mammarella, I. C., Hill, F., Devine, A., Caviola, S., & Szűcs, D. (2015). Math anxiety and developmental dyscalculia: A study on working memory processes. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 37, 878–887. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2015.1066759
Mattarella-Micke, A., Mateo, J., Kozak, M. N., Foster, K., & Beilock, S. L. (2011). Choke or thrive? The relation between salivary cortisol and math performance depends on individual differences in working memory and math anxiety. Emotion, 11, 1000–1005. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023224
Mayer, R. E. (1992). Thinking, problem solving, cognition (2nd ed.). New York, NY: W H Freeman/Times Books/ Henry Holt & Co..
Mayer, R. E., Larkin, J. H., & Kadane, J. B. (1984). A cognitive analysis of mathematical problem-solving ability. In J. R. Stenberg (Ed.), Advances in psychology of human intelligence (Vol. 2, pp. 231–273). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Meece, J. L., Wigfield, A., & Eccls, J. S. (1990). Predictors of math anxiety and its consequences for young adolescents’ course enrollment intentions and performances in mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 60–70.
Miller, H., & Bichsel, J. (2004). Anxiety working memory gender and math performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 591–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2003.09.029
Newstead, K. (1998). Aspects of children mathematics anxiety. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 36, 53–71. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003177809664
Passolunghi, M. C., Caviola, S., De Agostini, R., Perin, C., & Mammarella, I. C. (2016). Math anxiety, working memory and mathematics performance in secondary-school children. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00042
Passolunghi, M. C., & Cornoldi, C. (2000). Working memory and cognitive abilities in children with specific difficulties in arithmetic word problem solving. Advances in Learning and Behavioral Disabilities, 14, 155–117.
Passolunghi, M. C., Cornoldi, C., & De Liberto, S. (1999). Working memory and inhibition of irrelevant information in poor problem solvers. Memory and Cognition, 27, 779–790. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03198531
Passolunghi, M. C., & Lanfranchi, S. (2012). Domain-specific and domain general precursors of mathematical achievement: A longitudinal study from kindergarten to first grade. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 42–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.2011.02039.x
Passolunghi, M. C., Lanfranchi, S., Altoè, G., & Sollazzo, N. (2015). Early numerical abilities and cognitive skills in kindergarten children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 135, 25–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2015.02.001
Passolunghi, M. C., & Mammarella, I. C. (2010). Spatial and visual working memory in children with difficulties in arithmetic and problem solving. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 22, 944–963. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440903091127
Passolunghi, M. C., & Siegel, L. S. (2001). Short term memory, working memory, and inhibitory control in children with specific arithmetic problem solving. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 80, 44–57. https://doi.org/10.1006/jecp.2000.2626
Passolunghi, M. C., & Siegel, L. S. (2004). Working memory and access to numerical information in children with disability in mathematics. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 88, 348–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2004.04.002
Passolunghi, M. C., Vercelloni, B., & Schadee, H. (2007). The precursors of mathematics learning: Working memory, phonological ability and numerical competence. Cognitive Development, 22, 165–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2006.09.001
Ramirez, G., Gunderson, E. A., Levine, S. C., & Beilock, S. L. (2013). Math anxiety working memory and math achievement in early elementary school. Journal of Cognition and Development, 14, 187–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2012.664593
Re, A., Lovero, A., Cornoldi, C., & Passolunghi, M. C. (2016). Difficulties of children with ADHD symptoms in solving mathematical problems when information must be updated. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 59, 186–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2016.09.001
Reyna, V. F., & Brainerd, C. J. (2007). The importance of mathematics in health and human judgment: Numeracy, risk communication, and medical decision making. Learning and Individual Differences, 17(2), 147–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2007.03.010
Reyna, V. F., Nelson, W. L., Han, P. K., & Dieckmann, N. F. (2009). How numeracy influences risk comprehension and medical decision making. Psychological Bullettin, 135, 943–973. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017327
Richardson, F. C., & Suinn, R. M. (1972). The mathematics anxiety rating scale: Psychometric data. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 19(6), 551–554. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0033456
Saccani, M., & Cornoldi, C. (2005). Ansia per la matematica: La scala MARS-R per la valutazione e intervento meta cognitivo (Anxiety in matematichs: The MARS-R Scale for the metacognitive assestment and intervention). Difficoltà in Matematica, 1(2), 133–152.
Salthhouse, T. A. (1993). Influence of working memory on adult age differences in matrix reasoning. British Journal of Psychology, 84(2), 171–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1993.tb02472.x.
Salthouse, T.A. (1994). The processing-speed theory of adult age diffrences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103(3), 403–428.
Salthouse, T. A. (1996). The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103, 403–428.
Salthouse, T. A., & Meinz, E. J. (1995). Aging, inhibition, working memory, and speed. Psychological Science, 50, 297–306. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/50B.6.P297.
Swanson, H. L. (1994). The role of working memory and dynamic assessment in the classification of children with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 9(4), 190–202.
Swanson, H. L. (2011). Working memory, attention, and mathematical problem solving: A longitudinal study of elementary school children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(4), 821–837. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025114
Swanson, H. L., & Kim, K. (2007). Working memory, short-term memory, and naming speed as predictors of children’s mathematical performance. Intelligence, 35, 151–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.07.001
Szűcs, D., Devine, A., Soltesz, F., Nobes, A., & Gabriel, F. (2013). Developmental dyscalculia is related to visuo-spatial memory and inhibition impairment. Cortex, 49, 2674–2688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2013.06.007
Thomas, G., & Dowker A. (2000). Mathematics anxiety and related factors in young children. In Proceedings of the British Psychological Society Developmental Section Conference, September 2000. Bristol, UK: BPS.
Verschaffel, L., & De Corte, E. (1997). Word problems: A vehicle for promoting authentic mathematical understanding and problem solving in the primary school? In T. Nunes & P. Bryant (Eds.), Learning and teaching mathematics: An international perspective (pp. 69–97). Hove, England: Psychology Press/Erlbaum (UK) Taylor & Francis.
Verschaffel, L., Luwel, K., Torbeyns, J., & Van Dooren, W. (2009). Conceptualizing, investigating, and enhancing adaptive expertise in elementary mathematics education. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 24(3), 335–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1793-0_10
Vukovic, R. K., Kieffer, M. J., Bailey, S. P., & Harari, R. R. (2013). Mathematics anxiety in young children: Concurrent and longitudinal associations with mathematical performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03174765
Wechsler, D. (2003). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Forth edition. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
Wood, G., Pinheiro-Chagas, P., Júlio-Costa, A., Rettore Micheli, L., Krinzinger, H., Kaufmann, L., ... Haase, V. G. (2012). Math Anxiety Questionnaire: Similar latent structure in Brazilian and German school children. Child Development Research, 2012, Article ID 610192. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/610192
Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S., & Mather, N. (2001). Woodcock-Johnson III tests of cognitive abilities. Itaca, IL: Riverside.
Wu, S. S., Barth, M., Amin, H., Malcame, V., & Menon, V. (2012). Math anxiety in second and third graders and its relation to mathematics achievement. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00162
Wu, S. S., Willcutt, E. G., Escovar, E., & Menon, V. (2014). Mathematics achievement and anxiety and their relation to internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47, 503–514. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219412473154
Young, C. B., Wu, S. S., & Menon, V. (2012). The neurodevelopmental basis of math anxiety. Psychological Science, 23, 492–501. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611429134
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Passolunghi, M.C., Cargnelutti, E. & Pellizzoni, S. The relation between cognitive and emotional factors and arithmetic problem-solving. Educ Stud Math 100, 271–290 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-018-9863-y
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-018-9863-y