Abstract
Undergraduate student misuse of mobile technology (e.g., smartphones, laptops, tablets) for non-class purposes (e.g., texting, scrolling social media, playing games) has become ubiquitous in college classrooms across the globe. In addition, research has suggested that these digital distractions can negatively impact learning and performance. The prevalence and negative consequences of student digital distraction in the classroom require college instructors to proactively regulate student use of digital devices to protect the integrity of the learning environment. The present article aims to provide college instructors with a framework of strategies to curb student digital distraction. Specifically, the present article draws from the tenets of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to illustrate how and why common policies and strategies intended to curb student digital distraction can inadvertently threaten students’ basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom and, subsequently, alienate students against instructors. The article concludes by presenting evidence-based digital distraction prevention strategies that can buffer against student digital distraction without threatening students’ basic psychological needs or alienating students against their instructors.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.Data Availability
There is no research data associated with this paper available.
References
Aagaard, J. (2015). Drawn to distraction: A qualitative study of off-task use of educational technology. Computers & Education, 87, 90–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.03.010
Aguilar-Roca, N. M., Williams, A. E., & O’Dowd, D. K. (2012). The impact of laptop-free zones on student performance and attitudes in large lectures. Computers & Education, 59(4), 1300–1308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.05.002
Alexander, P. A., Schallert, D. L., & Reynolds, R. E. (2009). What is learning anyway? A topographical perspective considered. Educational Psychologist, 44(3), 176–192. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520903029006
American Psychological Association (2023). APA dictionary of psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/consciousness-raising
Authors. (in press).
Baker, J. P., & Goodboy, A. K. (2018). Students’ self-determination as a consequence of instructor misbehaviors. Communication Research Reports, 35(1), 68–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2017.1366305
Batch, B., Roberts, J., Nakonechnyi, A., & Allen, R. (2021). “Cell phones under the table”: Meeting students’ needs to reduce off-task smartphone use through faculty–student collaboration. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 49(4), 487–500. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239520985449
Berry, M. J., & Westfall, A. (2015). Dial D for distraction: The making and breaking of cell phone policies in the college classroom. College Teaching, 63(2), 62–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/87567555.2015.1005040
Bjornsen, C. A., & Archer, K. J. (2015). Relations between college students’ cell phone use during class and grades. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 1(4), 326–336. https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000045
Broeckelman-Post, M. A., & MacArthur, B. L. (2018). Are we violating student expectations? Availability, workload, class time use, and technology policies in undergraduate courses. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 73(4), 439–453. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077695817736687
Bovill, C., Bulley, C. J., & Morss, K. (2011). Engaging and empowering first-year students through curriculum design: Perspectives from the literature. Teaching in Higher Education, 16(2), 197–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2010.515024
Chen, L., Nath, R., & Tang, Z. (2020). Understanding the determinants of digital distraction: An automatic thinking behavior perspective. Computers in Human Behavior, 104, 106195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.106195
Cheong, P. H., Shuter, R., & Suwinyattichaiporn, T. (2016). Managing student digital distractions and hyperconnectivity: Communication strategies and challenges for professorial authority. Communication Education, 65(3), 272–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2016.1159317
Cliffe, A., Cook-Sather, A., Healey, M., Healey, R., Marquis, E., Matthews, K. E., & Woolmer, C. (2017). Launching a journal about and through students as partners. International Journal for Students as Partners, 1(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.15173/ijsap.v1i1.3194
Cook-Sather, A., Bovill, C., & Felten, P. (2014). Engaging students as partners in learning and teaching: A guide for faculty. John Wiley & Sons.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
Demirbilek, M., & Talan, T. (2018). The effect of social media multitasking on classroom performance. Active Learning in Higher Education, 19(2), 117–129. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469787417721382
Dietz, S., & Henrich, C. (2014). Texting as a distraction to learning in college students. Computers in Human behavior, 36, 163–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469787417721382
Docan-Morgan, T., & Manusov, V. (2009). Relational turning point events and their outcomes in college teacher–student relationships from students’ perspectives. Communication Education, 58(2), 155–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520802515713
Fedesco, H. N., Bonem, E. M., Wang, C., & Henares, R. (2019). Connections in the classroom: Separating the effects of instructor and peer relatedness in the basic needs satisfaction scale. Motivation and Emotion, 43, 758–770. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09765-x
Finn, A. N., & Ledbetter, A. M. (2013). Teacher power mediates the effects of technology policies on teacher credibility. Communication Education, 62(1), 26–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2012.725132
Finn, A. N., & Ledbetter, A. M. (2014). Teacher verbal aggressiveness and credibility mediate the relationship between teacher technology policies and perceived student learning. Communication Education, 63(3), 210–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2014.919009
Flanigan, A. E., & Babchuk, W. A. (2015). Social media as academic quicksand: A phenomenological study of student experiences in and out of the classroom. Learning and Individual Differences, 44, 40–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.11.003
Flanigan, A. E., & Babchuk, W. A. (2022). Digital distraction in the classroom: Exploring instructor perceptions and reactions. Teaching in Higher Education, 27(3), 352–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2020.1724937
Flanigan, A. E., & Kiewra, K. A. (2018). What college instructors can do about student cyber-slacking. Educational Psychology Review, 30, 585–597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-017-9418-2
Flanigan, A. E., & Titsworth, S. (2020). The impact of digital distraction on lecture note taking and student learning. Instructional Science, 48(5), 495–524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-020-09517-2
Flanigan, A. E., Ray, E., Titsworth, S., Hosek, A. M., & Kim, J. H. Y. (2021). Initiating and maintaining student-instructor rapport in face-to-face classes. Teaching in Higher Education. Advance publication available online. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2021.1918662
Fletcher, K. A., & Stanzione, C. M. (2021). A mixed-methods approach to understanding laptop-free zones in college classrooms. Computers & Education, 172, 104253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104253
Frey, T. K., & Tatum, N. T. (2017). The influence of classroom cell phone policies on instructor credibility. North Dakota Journal of Speech and Theatre, 29, 1–13.
Frisby, B. N., & Martin, M. M. (2010). Instructor–student and student–student rapport in the classroom. Communication Education, 59(2), 146–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520903564362
Froese, A. D., Carpenter, C. N., Inman, D. A., Schooley, J. R., Barnes, R. B., Brecht, P. W., & Chacon, J. D. (2012). Effects of classroom cell phone use on expected and actual learning. College Student Journal, 46(2), 323–332.
Gingerich, A. C., & Lineweaver, T. T. (2014). OMG! Texting in class= u fail:empirical evidence that text messaging during class disrupts comprehension. Teaching of Psychology, 41(1), 44–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628313514177
Glass, A. L., & Kang, M. (2019). Dividing attention in the classroom reduces exam performance. Educational Psychology, 39(3), 395–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2018.1489046
Goldman, Z. W., Goodboy, A. K., & Weber, K. (2017). College students’ psychological needs and intrinsic motivation to learn: An examination of self-determination theory. Communication Quarterly, 65(2), 167–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2016.1215338
Guay, F. (2022). Applying self-determination theory to education: Regulation types, psychological needs, and autonomy supporting behaviors. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 37(1), 75–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/08295735211055355
Hall-Newton, K., Rudkowski, J., Lee, S. H., Hogue, J., & Ratnichkina, P. (2019). Mobile devices in the lecture hall: Into it, indifferent, or intrusion? Journal of Education for Business, 94(6), 390–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2018.1541853
Hospel, V., & Galand, B. (2016). Are both classroom autonomy support and structure equally important for students’ engagement? A multilevel analysis. Learning and Instruction, 41, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.09.001
Howard, J. L., Bureau, J., Guay, F., Chong, J. X., & Ryan, R. M. (2021). Student motivation and associated outcomes: A meta-analysis from self-determination theory. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(6), 1300–1323. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620966789
Hung, H. T. (2016). Clickers in the flipped classroom: Bring your own device (BYOD) to promote student learning. Interactive Learning Environments, 25(8), 983–995. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2016.1240090
Imazeki, J. (2014). Bring-your-own-device: Turning cell phones into forces for good. The Journal of Economic Education, 45(3), 240–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220485.2014.917898
Jackson, L. D. (2012). Is mobile technology in the classroom a helpful tool or a distraction? A report of university students’ attitudes, usage practices, and suggestions for policies. International Journal of Technology, Knowledge & Society, 8(5), 129–140. https://doi.org/10.18848/1832-3669/cgp/v08i05/56335
Jamet, E., Gonthier, C., Cojean, S., Colliot, T., & Erhel, S. (2020). Does multitasking in the classroom affect learning outcomes? A naturalistic study. Computers in Human Behavior, 106, 106264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106264
Jang, H., Kim, E. J., & Reeve, J. (2016). Why students become more engaged or more disengaged during the semester: A self-determination theory dual-process model. Learning and Instruction,, 43, 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.01.002
Johnson, Z. D., Claus, C. J., Goldman, Z. W., & Sollitto, M. (2017). College student misbehaviors: An exploration of instructor perceptions. Communication Education, 66(1), 54–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2016.1202995
Kates, A. W., Wu, H., & Coryn, C. L. (2018). The effects of mobile phone use on academic performance: A meta-analysis. Computers & Education, 127, 107–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.08.012
Katz, L., & Lambert, W. (2016). A happy and engaged class without cell phones? It’s easier than you think. Teaching of Psychology, 43(4), 340–345. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628316662767
Kaur, A., & Noman, M. (2020). Investigating students’ experiences of Students as Partners (SaP) for basic need fulfilment: A self-determination theory perspective. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 17(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.53761/1.17.1.8
Kay, R., Benzimra, D., & Li, J. (2017). Exploring factors that influence technology-based distractions in bring your own device classrooms. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 55(7), 974–995. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633117690004
Kim, I., Kim, R., Kim, H., Kim, D., Han, K., Lee, P. H., & Lee, U. (2019). Understanding smartphone usage in college classrooms: A long-term measurement study. Computers & Education, 141, 103611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103611
Kornhauser, Z. G. C., Paul, A. L., & Siedlecki, K. L. (2016). An examination of students’ use of technology for non-academic purposes in the college classroom. Journal of Teaching and Learning with Technology, 5(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.14434/jotlt.v5n1.13781
Kuznekoff, J. H., & Titsworth, S. (2013). The impact of mobile phone usage on student learning. Communication Education, 62(3), 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2013.767917
Kuznekoff, J. H., Munz, S., & Titsworth, S. (2015). Mobile phones in the classroom: Examining the effects of texting, Twitter, and message content on student learning. Communication Education, 64(3), 344–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2015.1038727
Langan, D., Schott, N., Wykes, T., Szeto, J., Kolpin, S., Lopez, C., & Smith, N. (2016). Students’ use of personal technologies in the university classroom: Analysing the perceptions of the digital generation. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 25(1), 101–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2015.1120684
McCoy, B. R. (2020). Gen Z and digital distractions in the classroom: Student classroom use of digital devices for non-class related purposes. Journal of Media Education, 11(2), 5–23.
Morehead, K., Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Blasiman, R., & Hollis, R. B. (2019). Note-taking habits of 21st century college students: Implications for student learning, memory, and achievement. Memory, 807-819. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2019.1569694
Mu, H., & Paparas, D. (2015). Incorporating the advantages of clickers and mobile devices to teach economics to non-economists. Cogent Economics & Finance, 3(1), 1099802. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1099802
Neiterman, E., & Zaza, C. (2019). A mixed blessing? Students’ and instructors’ perspectives about off-task technology use in the academic classroom. Canadian Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10(1), n1. https://doi.org/10.5206/cjsotl-rcacea.2019.1.8002
Nie, Y., & Lau, S. (2009). Complementary roles of care and behavioral control in classroom management: The self-determination theory perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34(3), 185–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2009.03.001
Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory and Research in Education, 7(2), 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477878509104318
Núñez, J. L., & León, J. (2015). Autonomy support in the classroom: A review from self-determination theory. European Psychologist, 25(1), 73. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000399
Ober, T. M., Brodsky, J. E., Yannaco, F. D., & Brooks, P. J. (2020). College instructors’ and students’ views of the use (and misuse) of personal mobile devices. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000214
Parry, D. A., le Roux, D. B., & Cornelissen, L. A. (2020). Managing in-lecture media use: The feasibility and value of a split-class policy. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 32(2), 261–281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-019-09232-z
Parry, D. A., & le Roux, D. B. (2018). Off-task media use in lectures: Towards a theory of determinants. In Annual Conference of the Southern African Computer Lecturers’ Association (pp. 49–64). Springer, Cham.
Peng, Y., & Tullis, J. G. (2022). Dividing attention and metacognition. In A. E. Flanigan & J. H. Kim (Eds.), Digital distractions in the college classroom (pp. 62–91). IGI Global.
Pettijohn, T. F., Frazier, E., Rieser, E., Vaughn, N., & Hupp-Wilds, B. (2015). Classroom texting in college students. College Student Journal, 49(4), 513–516.
Plump, C. M., & LaRosa, J. (2017). Using Kahoot! in the classroom to create engagement and active learning: A game-based technology solution for eLearning novices. Management Teaching Review, 2(2), 151–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/2379298116689783
Ragan, E. D., Jennings, S. R., Massey, J. D., & Doolittle, P. E. (2014). Unregulated use of laptops over time in large lecture classes. Computers & Education, 78, 78–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.05.002
Ravizza, S. M., Hambrick, D. Z., & Fenn, K. M. (2014). Non-academic internet use in the classroom is negatively related to classroom learning regardless of intellectual ability. Computers & Education, 78, 109–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.05.007
Ravizza, S. M., Uitvlugt, M. G., & Fenn, K. M. (2017). Logged in and zoned out: How laptop internet use relates to classroom learning. Psychological Science, 28(2), 171–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616677314
Reeve, J. (2012). A self-determination theory perspective on student engagement. In Handbook of Research on Student Engagement (pp. 149–172). Springer.
Reeve, J., Jang, H., Hardre, P., & Omura, M. (2002). Providing a rationale in an autonomy-supportive way as a strategy to motivate others during an uninteresting activity. Motivation and Emotion, 26, 183–207. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021711629417
Redner, R., Lang, L. M., & Brandt, K. P. (2020). Evaluation of an electronics intervention on electronics use in a college classroom. Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice, 20(1), 4–12. https://doi.org/10.1037/bar0000158
Rezaei, A. (2020). Groupwork in active learning classrooms: Recommendations for users. Journal of Learning Spaces, 9(2), 1–21.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860
Sana, F., Weston, T., & Cepeda, N. J. (2013). Laptop multitasking hinders classroom learning for both users and nearby peers. Computers & Education, 62, 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.10.003
Santos, I. M., Bocheco, O., & Habak, C. (2018). A survey of student and instructor perceptions of personal mobile technology usage and policies for the classroom. Education and Information Technologies, 23(2), 617–632. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-017-9625-y
Santos, I. M., Bocheco, O., Vizzotto, L., & Moro, E. J. (2021). Students as contributors: Undergraduates’ perceptions of mobile technology use and policies for the classroom. TechTrends, 65(2), 152–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-020-00559-4
Scornavacca, E., Huff, S., & Marshall, S. (2009). Mobile phones in the classroom: If you can’t beat them, join them. Communications of the ACM, 52(4), 142–146. https://doi.org/10.1145/1498765.1498803
Sharma, S. (2020). I want it my way: Using consumerism and neutralization theory to understand students’ cyberslacking behavior. International Journal of Information Management, 53, 102131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102131
Shon, H., & Smith, L. (2011). A review of poll everywhere audience response system. Journal of Technology in Human Services, 29(3), 236–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/15228835.2011.616475
Spence, A., Beasley, K., Gravenkemper, H., Hoefler, A., Ngo, A., Ortiz, D., & Campisi, J. (2020). Social media use while listening to new material negatively affects short-term memory in college students. Physiology & Behavior, 227, 113172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.113172
Stachowski, A. A., Hamilton, K. L., & Bertram, A. M. (2020). Exploring student and faculty reactions to smartphone policies in the classroom. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 14(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2020.140111
Stowell, J. R., Addison, W. E., & Clay, S. L. (2018). Effects of classroom technology policies on students’ perceptions of instructors: What is your syllabus saying about you? College Teaching, 66(2), 98–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/87567555.2018.1437533
Taneja, A., Fiore, V., & Fischer, B. (2015). Cyber-slacking in the classroom: Potential for digital distraction in the new age. Computers & Education, 82, 141–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.11.009
Tatum, N. T., Olson, M. K., & Frey, T. K. (2018). Noncompliance and dissent with cell phone policies: A psychological reactance theoretical perspective. Communication Education, 67(2), 226–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2017.1417615
Teixeira, P. J., Marques, M. M., Silva, M. N., Brunet, J., Duda, J. L., Haerens, L., & Hagger, M. S. (2020). A classification of motivation and behavior change techniques used in self determination theory-based interventions in health contexts. Motivation Science, 6(4), 438–455. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000172
Tessier, J. (2013). Student impressions of academic cell phone use in the classroom. Journal of College Science Teaching, 43(1), 25–29. https://doi.org/10.2505/4/jcst13_043_01_25
Torres, K. M. (2022). Disrupting the college classroom experience: Avoiding technology pitfalls. In A. E. Flanigan & J. H. Kim (Eds.), Digital Distractions in the College Classroom (pp. 223–242). IGI Global.
Vahedi, Z., Zannella, L., & Want, S. C. (2021). Students’ use of information and communication technologies in the classroom: Uses, restriction, and integration. Active Learning in Higher Education, 22(3), 215–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469787419861926
Vallade, J. I. (2021). Instructor misbehavior frequency, severity, and impact on learning: Comparing student and teacher perceptions. Western Journal of Communication, 85(2), 275–298. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2020.1756397
Vallade, J. I., & Myers, S. A. (2014). Student forgiveness in the college classroom: Perceived instructor misbehaviors as relational transgressions. Communication Quarterly, 62(3), 342–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2014.911767
Waite, B. M., Lindberg, R., Ernst, B., Bowman, L. L., & Levine, L. E. (2018). Off-task multitasking, note-taking and lower-and higher-order classroom learning. Computers & Education, 120, 98–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.01.007
Wammes, J. D., Ralph, B. C., Mills, C., Bosch, N., Duncan, T. L., & Smilek, D. (2019). Disengagement during lectures: Media multitasking and mind wandering in university classrooms. Computers & Education, 132, 76–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.12.007
Whittington, B. L. (2019). Benefits of a voluntary cell phone abstinence intervention in general psychology courses. Teaching of Psychology, 46(4), 299–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628319872575
Witherby, A. E., & Tauber, S. K. (2019). The current status of students’ note-taking: Why and how do students take notes? Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 8(2), 139–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2019.04.002
Wu, J., Mei, W., & Ugrin, J. C. (2018). Student cyberloafing in and out of the classroom in China and the relationship with student performance. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 21(3), 199–204. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2017.0397
Yu, S., & Levesque-Bristol, C. (2020). A cross-classified path analysis of the self-determination theory model on the situational, individual and classroom levels in college education. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101857
Zaza, C., & Neiterman, E. (2019). Does size matter? instructors’ and students’ perceptions of students’ use of technology in the classroom. Journal of Information Technology Education Research, 18, 379–393. https://doi.org/10.28945/4411
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Flanigan, A.E., Brady, A.C., Dai, Y. et al. Managing Student Digital Distraction in the College Classroom: a Self-Determination Theory Perspective. Educ Psychol Rev 35, 60 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09780-y
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09780-y