Abstract
Modern cooperative learning began in the mid- 1960s (D. W. Johnson & R. Johnson, 1999a). Its use, however, was resisted by advocates of social Darwinism (who believed that students must be taught to survive in a “dog-eat-dog” world) and individualism (who believed in the myth of the “rugged individualist”). Despite the resistance, cooperative learning is now an accepted, and often the preferred, instructional procedures at all levels of education. Cooperative learning is being used in postsecondary education in every part of the world. It is difficult to find a text on instructional methods, a journal on teaching, or instructional guidelines that do not discuss cooperative learning. Materials on cooperative learning have been translated into dozens of languages. Cooperative learning is one of the success stories of both psychology and education. One of the most distinctive characteristics of cooperative learning, and perhaps the reason for its success, is the close relationship between theory, research, and practice. In this article, social interdependence theory will be reviewed, the research validating the theory will be summarized, and the five basic elements needed to understand the dynamics of cooperation and operationalize the validated theory will be discussed. Finally the controversies in the research and the remaining questions that need to be answered by future research will be noted.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Astin, S. (1993). What matters in college? Four critical years revisited. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bok, D. (2005). Our underachieving colleges: A candid look at how much students learn and why they should be learning more. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Deutsch, M. (1949). A theory of cooperation and competition. Human Relations, 2, 129–152.
Deutsch, M. (1958). Trust and suspicion. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2, 265–279.
Deutsch, M. (1960). The effects of motivational orientation upon trust and suspicion. Human Relations, 13, 123–139.
Deutsch, M. (1962). Cooperation and trust: Some theoretical notes. In M. R. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (pp. 275–319). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
Deutsch, M. (1973). The resolution of conflict. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Hersh, R., & Merrow, J. (2005). Declining by degrees: Higher education at risk. New York: Macmillan.
Johnson, D. W. (1970). Social psychology of education. New York: Holt, Rhinehart and Winston.
Johnson, D. W. (1971). Role reversal: A summary and review of the research. International Journal of Group Tensions, 1, 318–334.
Johnson, D. W. (1974). Communication and the inducement of cooperative behavior in conflicts: A critical review. Speech Monographs, 41, 64–78.
Johnson, D. W. (2006). Reaching out: Interpersonal effectiveness and self-actualization (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1974). Instructional goal structure: Cooperative, competitive, or individualistic. Review of Educational Research, 44, 213–240.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1989). Cooperation and competition: Theory and research. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1992). Positive interdependence: Key to effective cooperation. In R. Hertz-Lazarowitz & N. Miller (Eds.), Interaction in cooperative groups: The theoretical anatomy of group learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1995). Creative controversy: Intellectual conflict in the classroom (3rd ed.). Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1996). Cooperative learning and traditional American values. NASSP Bulletin, 80(579), 11–18.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1999a). Learning together and alone: Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1999b). Cooperative learning, values, and culturally plural classrooms. In M. Leicester, C. Modgill, & S. Modgil (Eds.), Values, the classroom, and cultural diversity. London, UK: Cassell.
Johnson, R., & Johnson, D. W. (2002). Teaching students to be peacemakers: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Education, 12(1), 25–39.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (2003). Controversy and peace education. Journal of Research in Education, 13(1), 71–91.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (2005). Teaching students to be peacemakers (4th ed.). Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, F. (2006a). Joining together: Group theory and group skills (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (2006b). New developments in social interdependence theory. Minneapolis: Report, Cooperative Learning Center, University of Minnesota (submitted for publication).
Johnson, D. W., & Noonan, P. (1972). Effects of acceptance and reciprocation of self-disclosures on the development of trust. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 19(5), 411–416.
Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive-developmental approach to socialization. In D. A. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp. 347–480). Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
Lewin, K. (1935). A dynamic theory of personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lewin, K. (1948). Resolving social conflicts. New York: Harper.
McKeachie, W., Pintrich, P., Yi-Guang, L., & Smith, D. (1986). Teaching and learning in the college classroom: A review f the research literature. Ann Arbor, MI: The Regents of the University of Michigan.
Norem-Hebeisen, A., & Johnson, D. W. (1981). Relationships between cooperative, competitive, and individualistic attitudes and differentiated aspects of self-esteem. Journal of Personality, 49, 415–425.
Sullivan, W. (2005). Work and integrity: The crisis and promise of professionalism in America (2nd ed.). Stanford, CN: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T. & Smith, K. The State of Cooperative Learning in Postsecondary and Professional Settings. Educ Psychol Rev 19, 15–29 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-006-9038-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-006-9038-8