Children live in digitally rich environments, both at home and at school (Dashti & Habeeb, 2020; Kabali et al., 2015; Konca, 2022), and since the introduction of the iPad in 2010, a debate has begun over the potential of digital devices to transform the educational landscape (Kucirkova, 2014). Proponents of early media adoption view digital devices as a way to access an increasingly digitalized world and as an opportunity for young children to strengthen their abilities in this regard (Beschorner & Hutchison, 2013). In discussions about 21st-century skills, communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity are frequently emphasized as key factors in preparing individuals for future challenges. For example, Van Laar et al. (2020) emphasized the need to research the determinants of communication and collaboration skills in the context of digital education. Advocates of technology-enriched learning have also stressed the potential of digital devices to enable learners to work collaboratively and to creatively engage in knowledge building (McKnight et al., 2016; Yelland & Gilbert, 2018). Yelland and Gilbert (2018) emphasized the multimodal possibilities of digital devices: children can create their own content, which in turn can be harnessed for deeper learning. However, there are critical voices posing the argument that digital devices negatively impact health, social behavior, and concentration, and that they are reducing play opportunities in early childhood education (Dunn et al., 2018).

Digital devices are used in different contexts. At home, for example, parents often let their children use digital devices as a source of engagement that in turn allows them (the parents) to complete household tasks (Kabali et al., 2015). Such an instrumentalization of digital tools hinders conversations between adults and children, which are known to be crucial for children’s social and cognitive development and learning in various fields, especially during early childhood (Klibanoff et al., 2006; Massey, 2003; Mercer & Howe, 2012). Therefore, the unrestricted or unmoderated use of digital devices in early childhood can be problematic. In fact, increased screen time has been found to be associated with a reduction in sleep duration (Mallawaarachchi et al., 2022), and the heavy use of tablets can lead to heightened attention-deficit symptoms, impaired emotional and social intelligence, or social isolation (Small et al., 2020). However, when used adequately and in moderation, children can benefit from digital devices (Beschorner & Hutchison, 2013; McKnight et al., 2016; Neumann et al., 2017; Yelland & Gilbert, 2018).

Therefore, we infer that role models, at home and in schools, are of utmost importance for young children to learn to use digital technologies advantageously. Indeed, there are frameworks suggesting how to use digital devices in a beneficial and educative way (Donohue, 2015; Tavernier & Hu, 2020). According to Donohue (2015), the use of digital devices should center around the idea of strengthening the relationship between educator and child and fostering joint verbal exchange. When using digital devices, prioritizing conversations should work against the potential isolating effect that technology might induce.

Review of the Literature

Tablet Computers at the Service of Early Science Learning

The potential of tablet computers for early childhood education has been recognized across various learning fields, including literacy (Neumann et al., 2017; Oakley et al., 2020), mathematics (McDonald & Fotakopoulou, 2024; Mowafi & Abumuhfouz, 2021), science, (Furman et al., 2019; Kwok et al., 2016), and arts (Kirkorian et al., 2020). In the natural sciences, young children enter school with a rich foundation of prior knowledge, experiences, and interests, which they use to solve problems and understand physical phenomena (Carey, 1985; Cohen & Cashon, 2007; Gopnik, 2012; Mandler, 2008). Theories of learning as conceptual change, originally developed through studies in physics, highlight the importance of reconstructing prior knowledge and the challenges in this process (Carey, 1985; Vosniadou, 1994). Given the complexity of science knowledge, exploring the adoption of digital devices such as tablet computers could be particularly beneficial. Tablets offer multimedia resources and interactive simulations, which may make physical phenomena more accessible for learning.

Play is undisputedly an important avenue for the development and exploration of the world for young children. According to Pyle and Danniels (2017), play-based learning can take different forms within the continuum from child-directed to teacher-directed learning, ranging from free play, inquiry play, and collaboratively designed play to playful learning and learning through games. In relation to the purpose of early science learning, the mode of inquiry play offers a fruitful scenario for learning about natural phenomena (see Bybee, 2004).

Given their hands-on, interactive nature, tablet computers have the potential to transform early science learning and play (Furman et al., 2019; Yelland & Gilbert, 2018). Constructing and reconstructing domain-specific knowledge is a gradual and ongoing journey that demands significant cognitive effort from the learners involved. Consequently, effective technology-supported instruction should be tailored towards a stimulating cognitive engagement. Various strategies for cognitive activation have proven to be effective, including the recognition of limitations of one’s existing knowledge, the engagement in comparative tasks, and the encouragement of self-explanations (Schumacher & Stern, 2023).

According to Yelland and Gilbert (2018), tablet computers have the potential to facilitate multi-modal learning. Children can rely on multiple modes—language, visuals, sound, and touch—when using the devices to deepen their learning experiences. They emphasized that technology enables a deeper and more intricate comprehension of phenomena by bridging the “real” world with its digital representations. The multi-modality of digital representation could additionally motivate children in the verbal exchange of their ideas.

Digital devices capable of processing photos and videos have the potential to enhance and transform science learning activities. Slow-motion playback of videos, for example, can render hard-to-reach phenomena visible (Fleer, 2013; Fridberg et al., 2018). Photos or videos taken as part of learning processes provide children with the opportunity to view their world from a different perspective, focus on specific parts of their environment, and document their learning activities (Bailey & Blagojevic, 2015). This can be illustrated during tablet-enriched construction play. The physical concept of the forces at work in a tower construction made of building blocks is initially inaccessible to the human senses. When the tower collapses, however, the effects of the associated forces show themselves for an instant, both audibly and visually. Photos or videos taken with a tablet computer can document such moments and can then be played back repeatedly. Additionally, through slow-motion, zooming, or the selection of specific still images, different aspects of the event can be highlighted for learning purposes.

Tablet Computers and the Quality of Teacher–Child Interactions

As the use of tablet computers and other types of technology become widespread in classrooms, researchers are increasingly focused on understanding its impact on the interactions between teachers and students. Several studies have investigated the role of technology for interaction quality in education. Harper (2018) explored the relationship between technology and teacher–student interaction in a review focused on K-12 education. The author categorized the studies into those examining face-to-face and online interactions. With respect to face-to-face interactions, Harper’s (2018) findings suggested that technology significantly alters teacher–student interaction dynamics, leading to a shift toward more collaborative, student-centered learning. This shift places greater emphasis on the teacher’s role as a facilitator.

Digital technologies play a crucial role in shaping interactions between children as well as between teachers and children in early childhood education. Eagle’s (2012) study examined adult–child interactions involving various digital devices, analyzing transcript extracts to explore different interaction modes based on existing literature. The author argued that interactions with digital devices that are more child-directed, child-sustained, and exploratory are more effective in supporting children’s learning than predominantly instructional modes.

However, the integration of tablet computers in the classroom setting does not necessarily enrich interaction and learning. According to the media theory of Mayer (2003), effective multimedia instruction involves integrating both visual and auditory information in a way that aligns with how the human cognitive system processes information. The author argued that when multimedia scenarios are designed without considering cognitive limitations, they can overwhelm learners’ working memory, hindering their ability to process and understand the material.

Teachers’ knowledge and beliefs concerning technology influence how they facilitate technology-supported learning activities (for a literature review, see Undheim, 2022). Research has shown that teachers’ knowledge of digital devices and resources affects how these technologies are utilized in teaching (Jack & Higgins, 2019). At the same time, media integration is not solely dependent on knowledge—it also hinges on how teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and practices align with their views on digital technology and its role in early childhood education (Vidal-Hall et al., 2020). Schriever et al. (2020) revealed that early childhood teachers often perceive digital technologies as detrimental to play, leading them to implement protective measures that limit children’s digital experiences.

To summarize, as technology becomes more widespread in classrooms, it significantly shifts teacher–student interactions, promoting more collaborative and student-centered learning. In early childhood education, child-directed and exploratory use of digital devices is seen as more effective for learning, though careful instructional design is needed to fit learner’s individual needs. Also, teachers’ individual knowledge and beliefs play a crucial role in guiding these technology-supported interactions.

Present Study

A Framework for Tablet-Video Functionality and Teacher–Child Interaction

In Fig. 1, we introduce our theoretical and operational framework, elucidating how we perceive technology’s potential to enhance the quality of interaction between teachers and children. Specifically, we refer to the basic video functionality of tablet computers, which teachers can incorporate as a visual aid for the exploration of the phenomenon under discussion in their interactions with children.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Theoretical and operational framework: technology-enriched interaction quality

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Regardless of technological advancements, the significance of teacher–child interactions for development and learning seems to persist. Building on Vygotskij’s seminal work (Vygotskij, 1975; Vygotskij & Cole, 1981), socio-constructivist approaches to teaching and learning have become widely accepted, highlighting the essential role of social interaction in early childhood education. In early science instruction and beyond, sustained shared thinking and scaffolding have hereby gained widespread application in how to shape interactions. The integration of tablet computers in early science education should ideally enrich the processes associated with these established concepts. Scaffolding, as defined by Wood et al. (1976), involves providing support and guidance from a more knowledgeable person to help children achieve tasks that are initially beyond their capabilities. This support includes breaking down complex problems, offering verbal prompts, modeling, and providing feedback, and is gradually reduced as the child gains competence (Eshach et al., 2011). Sustained shared thinking involves children and more knowledgeable people, such as educators, engaging in extended, meaningful conversations and collaborative problem-solving (Sylva et al., 2004). It places an emphasis on active listening, responding to children’s ideas, and the co-construction of knowledge and skills (Sylva et al., 2004).

Tablet computers, if of any use, should ideally enrich interactions in terms of scaffolding and sustained shared thinking. These two concepts possess important commonalities: at their core, they both emphasize the active roles of the teacher and the children. An Active Role of Children, as depicted in Fig. 1, involves the premise that children are afforded ample room to verbally explore and express their thoughts and ideas. For children’s ongoing knowledge co-construction and play, they need space to express their concerns, formulate their own ideas, point out contradictions, and ask questions (Sylva et al., 2011; Zaman & Fivush, 2013). Studies in early science education have shown that children’s level of participation in conversations with their teacher is associated with greater learning progress (Bürgermeister et al., 2019). Other contributions have called for an Active Role of Teacher as well, which is reflected in the concepts of open/stimulating questions (Kawalkar & Vijapurkar, 2013; Siraj-Blatchford & Manni, 2008); the provision of adequate scaffolds, including prompts for explanation (Eshach et al., 2011); the steering of attention; or the stimulation of reflections (Studhalter et al., 2021).

In science instruction, in-depth interactions are essential for challenging and advancing the conceptual knowledge of learners. Such interactions for knowledge reconstruction often require a considerable amount of time (Carey, 1987). Therefore, we have designated duration as one indication of high-quality interactions between a teacher and a child.

Based on the established understanding of interaction quality, we complement our framework with considerations regarding digital devices as an enrichment of teacher–child interactions. Specifically, we ask how the use of tablet computers may influence interaction quality (see Fig. 1, question). Our approach is based on teachers’ implementing ad hoc video recordings of the phenomenon at hand as a part of teacher–child interactions. Such a recording may then be used for a focused observation of the science phenomenon under investigation, as part of the teacher–child interaction. As indicated in Fig. 1, this may involve (a) the repetition of the short clip through the replay option, or (b) the emphasis on specific aspects of a phenomenon through the use of the slow motion, zoom, and still image options. In addition, the recordings allow one to (c) change perspective and look at the phenomenon, and at one’s own actions, from a different point of view. Teachers in their active role can tailor questions specifically toward various aspects of the phenomenon through repeated, joint viewing. As the film is replayed, children take on an active role, allowing them to repeatedly contribute their ideas and train their content-specific vocabulary, thus strengthening their conceptual understanding.

Research Question

Although there is a growing consensus that digital technology provides unique opportunities for children’s learning, the precise distinctions, context information, and specific learning scenarios in this regard remain incomplete (Aladé et al., 2016; Hassler et al., 2016; Liu & Hwang, 2023). In the context of 21st-century skills, it is particularly important to understand how digital media can enhance communication and collaboration (Van Laar et al., 2020). With the present study, we examine the quality of teacher–child interactions as a function of technological support in a specific play-based learning scenario. We describe and measure how a teacher’s ad hoc tablet use may impact the dialogic learning practices in comparison with a no-tablet setup. Either way, the teacher supports the children and encourages them to think about the stability of their block constructions. Our comparative data consists of captured video episodes of teacher–child interactions with and without the integration of ad hoc tablet recordings during the play-based learning scenario.

The research question guiding this study is:

How do teacher–child interactions in tablet-use episodes differ from no-tablet-use episodes in terms of interaction quality?

We hypothesize that the use of tablet computers enriches the interaction quality between a teacher and a child, as the medium has a high potential to additionally stimulate the conversation and to heighten an in-depth exchange about science phenomena in the context of the play-based learning scenario. According to the selected indicators, this would translate into longer interactions, more stimulating prompts from the teacher (Active Role of Teacher, see Fig. 1), and greater verbal participation from the children (Active Role of Children).

Methods

Sample and Setting

For this study, two kindergarten teachers and their respective classes in a suburban community in Switzerland were examined. The teachers and their corresponding classes comprised our cases, which were designated Case A and Case B; one consisted of a female teacher aged 30 years, with 7 years of teaching experience, and one, a male teacher aged 28 years, with 5 years of teaching experience. Both teachers acquired their teaching qualifications from a university of teacher education and, as expressed in an interview, displayed an interest in integrating tablet computers into their teaching. When asked about their affinity for technology and acceptance of new technologies, the male teacher showed slightly higher agreement compared to the female teacher. As to their formal training, the regular program of instruction included courses on media pedagogy and science instruction didactics. However, due to the generalist nature of the course of study, the time dedicated to these topics was limited.

In Swiss kindergartens, children are typically between 4 and 6 years old, and attendance is mandatory, forming part of the public primary school. At the time of the data collection, one teacher had a class consisting of 15 girls and 7 boys, while the other teacher had a class with 10 girls and 9 boys. The project took place in spring 2022. We supplied the teachers with teaching materials focusing on tower stability within the context of a play-based learning scenario, which they further developed and altered themselves. The project took place over a period of 4 weeks.

Children’s Conceptual Learning About the Stability of Towers

The physics governing stable constructions is articulated through the center of mass theory, which posits that a tower topples when its center of mass no longer aligns with its supporting surface. Children’s conceptual learning regarding this principle is delineated in three stages: no theory, center theory, and mass theory (Weber et al., 2020). It is suggested that children require numerous learning experiences and repeated, intentional reflective processes for this conceptual change to take place. In the case of symmetrical objects, evaluations based on their center suffice: symmetrical objects are stable if the geometric center lies above the supporting surface. However, this principle may not hold true for asymmetrical objects. In such cases, children need to cultivate an understanding of mass distribution: objects are stable if the center of mass is above the supporting surface. Young children are not expected to utilize the scientific terms (e.g., center of mass, etc.), but instead to express the principle of stability in simple terms (e.g., stable, the middle of this block, etc.).

Teacher-Guided Tablet-Use in a Play-Based Learning Scenario

The tablet computer was used by the teacher within a play-based learning scenario. In this scenario, children had the freedom to choose from various play-based activities, including free play, inquiry play, and playful learning (see Pyle & Danniels, 2017). For example, children could build dream houses with various materials and engage in imaginative play, explore picture books about construction, reconstruct towers from images, or build large cardboard towers. The specific science objective was to enhance their understanding of constructing stable towers. With this objective in mind, children were asked to collapse their constructions using methods such as “storm” or “earthquake”, with simulating a storm using a hair dryer being particularly popular. The teachers’ role was to guide the children naturally in their play and inquiry, emphasizing the concept of stability. The tablet was introduced only when the children were ready to test their towers.

In certain lessons (refer to the study design in the next section), a tablet computer was made available, while in others, it was not. The tablet was used to record how the children brought down their towers (see Fig. 2, left). These short video recordings served as the basis for subsequent discussions on stability. The videos could be replayed multiple times, paused at specific points, or played in reverse to help children focus their observations (see Fig. 2, right). After these reflective sessions, the children continued with their play and learning activities independently.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Test and discussion of tower stability. The teacher is recording the collapse of the tower by the tablet computer (left) and discussing the stability of the tower with the children using the video recording (right)

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Study Design and Data Collection

This study used a descriptive, multiple-case study design, incorporating a comparison between tablet use and non-tablet use. It employed a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative analysis with its quantitative transformation.

We recorded the teaching activities of the two teachers in a videographic setting over a span of 4 weeks, encompassing 12 lessons each, leading to a cumulative total of 24 lessons and a duration of 13.1 h of footage. During the recording process, two video cameras were employed: the first camera captured events in wide angle on a tripod, while the second camera focused on teacher–child interactions using a handheld approach. Two researchers were present to capture the lessons: one operated the handheld camera, while the other took content-relevant notes to inform validity (see below). Using a quasi-experimental design, the teachers were to incorporate tablets into their interactions with the children during eight lessons, while refraining from doing so during the remaining four lessons.

Written consent forms were obtained from teachers and guardians for the use of image and video material for the purposes of teacher education and research.

Data Analysis

The observational video data were initially analyzed using qualitative methods for categorization, followed by a second step in which the data were quantified. In the first step, we conducted a qualitative analysis of the video material using MAXQDA (https://www.maxqda.com). Interaction episodes (= events) were defined, following König (2009, p. 165), as situations where the teacher and one or more children engage in content-specific relationships through joint actions or verbal exchanges. Initially, we isolated all interaction episodes specifically related to tower stability, resulting in 200 episodes: 110 involving tablet use and 90 without tablet use. Then, we coded the quality of teacher–child interaction in an inter-rater agreement procedure. High-quality interactions were those featuring deep, prolonged content-specific exchanges between the teacher and one or more children, operationalized using the coding scheme in Table 1.

Table 1 Coding scheme for the quality of teacher–child interaction episodes
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We ensured validity by carefully aligning our assessment instruments with the established theory of effective teacher–child interaction and the specifics of the learning scenario. To further enhance validity, notes taken during the recording of the lessons were aligned with the applied coding scheme (see Table 1). Inter-rater reliability was verified by training two evaluators to code the video material, achieving a Cohen’s kappa of 0.80, according to Brennan and Prediger (1981). This measure was based on 14% of the total material.

In the second step, the codes of the sampled events (= interaction episodes specifically related to tower stability) were quantified and compared in terms of tablet/no-tablet-usage using Welch corrected t-tests. The results section will initially present the absolute number of code assignments and then their frequency of codes per episode. Subsequently, we provide an integrated perspective with a graphic illustrating interaction quality, incorporating both teachers’ and children’s active roles in interactions, along with the episode duration as a third dimension (see operational model of interaction quality, Fig. 1). Lastly, an analogous graphic focus on the significance of open questions from the teacher and their connection to longer speeches from the children.

Results

Number of Code Assignments

The descriptive statistics of code assignments are provided in Table 2. In total, 3099 codes were assigned across 200 selected episodes. It is important to note that the number of 100 episodes for each teacher is not a deliberate design, but rather a result of identifying corresponding episodes based on available teaching material. Regarding the Active Role of Teacher, open questions were the most frequently assigned (620), followed by closed questions (555), encourage observation (275), and stimulate reflection (252). Codes for the Active Role of Children were generally less frequent, pointing to a disparity of verbal engagement between teachers and children. Although children’s very short statements were fairly numerous (few words: 441), longer statements, questions, and content-specific language from the children were observed only rarely (less than 100 instances).

Table 2 Number of code assignments
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Frequency of Code Assignment per Episode

Table 3, which presents the relative frequency of code assignments per episode, is utilized to compare the interaction quality assessment between the Tablet and No-Tablet conditions. Notably, substantial differences are observed between Case A and Case B. In Case A, the active role of both the teacher and the children is significantly more pronounced in tablet-supported episodes compared to episodes without a tablet. Significant differences between the Tablet and No-Tablet conditions, as per Welch’s corrected t-tests, were identified for the following teacher variables: Open Question (M = 6.80, SD = 5.06 vs. M = 3.94, SD = 3.33, t(84.78) = 3.336, p < .01), Prompt Observation (M = 2.78, SD = 1.82 vs. M = 1.26, SD = 1.43, t(92.66) = 4.646, p < .001), Content Specific-Language Basic (M = 1.60, SD = 2.37 vs. M = 0.84, SD = 1.17, t(71.38) = 2.032, p < .05), Content-Specific Language Elaborate (M = 1.22, SD = 1.47 vs. M = 0.56, SD = 1.11, t(91.01) = 2.529, p < .01). And for the children’s variables: Few Words (M = 4.28, SD = 3.08 vs. M = 2.90, SD = 2.98, t(97.89) = 2.279, p < .05), 1 Phrase (M = 3.64, SD = 2.73 vs. M = 1.72, SD = 1.47, t(75.23) = 4.376, p < .001), > 1 Phrase (M = 0.34, SD = 0.87 vs. M = 0.04, SD = 0.20, t(54.042) = 2.374, p < .05), Open Question (M = 0.30, SD = 0.54 vs. M = 0.08, SD = 0.27, t(72.37) = 2.554, p < .05), Content-Specific Language Basic (M = 0.82, SD = 1.08 vs. M = 0.38, SD = 0.73, t(85.64) = 2.388, p < .05), Content-Specific Language Elaborate (M = 072, SD = 1.13 vs. M = 0.16, SD = 0.37, t(59.49) = 3.342, p < .01) (see Table 3). The differences between device conditions are less pronounced in Case B, and it is important to note that they are in the opposite direction with respect to the teacher’s active role. The teacher in Case B exhibited higher values in the No-Tablet condition, with significant differences identified in the following teacher variables: Open Question (M = 0.38, SD = 0.92 vs. M = 1.50, SD = 2.63, t(45.45) = − 2.581, p < .05), Explanation (M = 0.22, SD = 0.72 vs. M = 0.60, SD = 1.01, t(64.77) = − 2.082, p < .05), Content-Specific Language Basic (M = 0.45, SD = 0.93 vs. M = 1.38, SD = 2.72, t(45.10) = − 2.069, p < .05). For Case B, a significantly more active role of children in the Tablet condition was detected for one variable: Open Question (M = 0.08, SD = 0.28 vs. M = 0.00, SD = 0.00, t(59.00) = − 2.316, p < .05).

Table 3 Frequency of code assignment
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The duration of the episodes was significantly longer in the Tablet condition for both Case A and Case B: Duration for Case A (M = 203.7, SD = 133.3 vs. M = 94.7, SD = 71.0, t(74.71) = 5.102, p < .001), Duration for Case B (M = 136.73, SD = 103.6 vs. M = 91.55, SD = 99.9, t(85.81) = 2.183, p < .05).

Integrated Perspective on Interaction Quality

Finally, from an integrated perspective, we present a graphic representing interaction quality, incorporating the two dimensions of both teachers’ and children’s active roles in their interactions, and the duration of the episode as a third dimension (see Fig. 3). Additionally, an analogous graphic represents the focus on open questions from the teacher and their relation to longer speeches from the children (see Fig. 4).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Teacher–child interaction quality. Note. Interaction quality is represented by three dimensions: duration and the active roles of both the teacher and the children. All variables related to the roles of the teacher and children were used to qualify the interactions. Device usage is differentiated between Tablet and No-Tablet conditions. A and B represent the two cases under investigation

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Fig. 4
figure 4

Teacher–child interaction quality with selected variables. Note. Interaction quality is represented by three dimensions: duration and the active roles of both the teacher and the children. Selected variables related to the roles of the teacher and children were used to qualify the interactions, i.e. teachers’ open questions and children’s longer responses, i.e., > 1 phrase. Device usage is differentiated between Tablet and No-Tablet conditions. A and B represent the two cases under investigation

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Figure 3 provides a comprehensive view of teacher–child interaction quality, considering device usage and cases, using all variables outlined in Tables 2 and 3. The examination of Fig. 3 confirms pronounced differences between the two cases. First, it is noticeable that the differences in device usage (Tablet vs. No-Tablet) are more pronounced for Case A than for Case B. Longer episodes with an active teacher and children’s role are clearly more numerous in Case A. In Case B, this characteristic of episodes is hardly noticeable, except for a single episode in the No-Tablet condition. It is noticeable that there are numerous episodes in Case B, in which neither the children nor the teacher takes an active role, as measured by the respective verbal codes.

For Fig. 4, the dimensions of the active role of teachers and children have been reduced to the frequency of teachers’ open questions and children’s longer responses (> 1 phrase). It is once again clear that in Case A, there are longer episodes, especially when using the tablet, which are associated with a high number of this type of teacher question and the corresponding longer answering behavior of the children. For the teacher in Case B, there are no episodes with longer children’s verbal contributions, and no clear trends are visible in terms of the number of open teacher questions and the duration of the episode when comparing the device usage.

Discussion

This study investigated the interaction quality between teachers and children concerning the use or non-use of technological support from a tablet computer in a specific play-based learning scenario in kindergarten. The interaction quality was formulated based on a selection of well-established theoretical concepts and operationalized by considering the relevance of an active role for both the teacher and the children. The aim was to test the hypothesis whether tablet-supported episodes are associated with enriched interaction quality, theorized according to active roles of the participants based on scaffolding and sustained shared thinking, compared to episodes without this specific technological support. The collected data clearly supports the hypothesized technology-enriched interaction for Case A and, to a lesser extent, for Case B.

The hypothesis of enriched interactions holds to the teacher in Case A because tablet-supported episodes are linked to significantly higher interaction quality. In Case A, tablet-supported episodes lasted longer and involved both a more active teacher role and a more active children’s role. The increased quality of interaction is reflected in the teacher’s more frequent asking of relevant questions, more frequent prompts for focused observations, and an overall more frequent use of content-specific language (see Table 3). On the children’s side, higher overall verbal contributions and increased use of content-specific language were evident in tablet-supported episodes.

For the teacher in Case B, the interaction quality criteria are less favorable in the tablet-use condition concerning the active role of the teacher: open questions, explanations, and content-specific language were observed less frequently in tablet-supported episodes compared to episodes without tablet usage (see Table 3). Despite the less active teacher role in tablet-supported episodes, technology-enriched interactions were of longer duration and the children participated more actively, at least in terms of posing open questions.

In summary, the following three findings can be stated:

  1. (1)

    Duration of interactions: Tablet-supported episodes were found to be longer in duration (see Table 3).

  2. (2)

    Teacher’s active role in interaction: The efficacy of integrating tablet computers as supporting devices for teacher–child interactions is contingent upon individual teacher practices.

  3. (3)

    Children’s active role in interaction: The utilization of tablet computers in teacher–child interactions has demonstrated a positive impact on children’s verbal participation.

In the following section, these three findings are discussed in more detail.

Duration of Interaction (Finding 1)

In both cases, the interactions between teacher and children lasted longer. We have stipulated the duration as a prerequisite for enabling an in-depth conversation (see Fig. 1). Although duration alone is not a quality criterion for educational interactions, both sustained shared thinking and the process of scaffolding learning around complex science concepts inherently require ample time for observation, reflection, and the exchange of ideas (Carey, 1985; Sylva et al., 2004; Vosniadou, 1994). Children appear to benefit from the opportunities offered by the tablet video application, as longer and more focused interactions were observed. Moreover, children can observe specific phenomena repeatedly, focus on details, and watch themselves at work. In this play-based scenario, the use of tablet computers seemed to contribute to making hard-to-reach phenomena more accessible, possibly enhancing the conceptual understanding of the respective science concept (cf. Fleer, 2013; Fridberg et al., 2018). These possibilities highlight the technology’s potential to enhance communication and collaboration within educational settings (Donohue, 2015; Tavernier & Hu, 2020; Van Laar et al., 2020).

Teacher’s Active Role in Interaction (Finding 2)

In Case A, the teacher demonstrated that the integration of a digital device can be utilized for shaping the interaction with the child in a favorable way. Through numerous open-ended questions and prompts, the teacher guided focused observations toward specific phenomena, utilizing a rich vocabulary tailored to the content. In combination with the elevated verbal engagement of children (see below), this aligned well with the standards of interaction quality in the sense of sustained scaffolding and sustained shared thinking (Eshach et al., 2011; Sylva et al., 2004). In Case A, the teacher employed the device effectively for a deep and prolonged intellectual and content-specific exchange.

Yet, the observed variances between the two cases suggest that the effectiveness of integrating tablet computers into teacher–child interactions relies on further teacher- or context-related variables. Differences in teachers’ professional knowledge, beliefs, and instructional practices may explain the differences in dialogic behavior observed between the two teachers (Jack & Higgins, 2019; Undheim, 2022; Vidal-Hall et al., 2020). When considering technologically supported instruction, disparities in knowledge may be found in the domains of technology, pedagogy, and content, as outlined in the TPACK framework (Koehler et al., 2013). The pre-installed video function on tablets is unlikely to pose a significant technical challenge in the learning scenario presented in this study. Hence, differences in pedagogical knowledge and content knowledge should be considered. Teachers at lower grade levels often do not have the opportunity to build a solid knowledge base in the domain of science due to the limited time and space provided by their generalist training. The lack of science knowledge at lower grade levels for effective science teaching is well recognized (e.g., Appleton, 2008). Therefore, it is possible that a higher level of subject knowledge is associated with a more flexible use of tablet computers and a more favorable steering of interactions. Obstructive beliefs about the implementation of new technology could also impair the effectivity of implementing effective interactions (Ertmer, 1999; Schriever et al., 2020). Further, contextual factors having an influence on how teachers shape their interactions may include the classroom environment, various student characteristics, or the teacher–child relationship, among others.

Children’s Active Role in Interaction (Finding 3)

In this study, incorporating tablet computers into teacher–child interactions positively influenced children’s verbal participation, with Case A showing a greater degree of impact compared to Case B. The learning scenario examined in this study illustrates how integrating tablet computers can enhance verbal exchange between educators and children, alleviating concerns regarding isolation (Donohue, 2015; Dunn et al., 2018; Schriever et al., 2020). Creating room for children to share their thoughts is coherent to the importance of sharing ideas with a more knowledgeable person, as highlighted in sustained shared thinking (Sylva et al., 2004). Even though children displayed higher verbal engagement in technology-supported situations compared to situations without, it must be noted that teachers’ verbal codes were assigned more frequently than children’s verbal codes in general (see Table 3, e.g., children’s statements > 1 phrase). This verbal engagement disparity between teacher and children aligns with results reporting extensive teacher speech contributions in early science instruction (Bürgermeister et al., 2019). The theoretical concepts presented (scaffolding, sustained shared thinking) emphasize the importance of high-level child participation, raising questions about why children’s speech levels were relatively low within the present learning scenario and how this could be increased. According to Elbers (2004), the asymmetry in conversations could arise from the conversational situation feeling unfamiliar to children. Specific questions and overly technical terms about physical phenomena may inhibit some learners. A study by Studhalter et al. (2021) showed that teachers’ verbal prompts can even have a negative impact on children’s learning. To prevent this, the teacher needs to develop a fine sense for balanced conversations. They need to know when to provide the next prompt, and when it is more appropriate to observe and wait for the child’s next contribution. This professional competence is described by Harper (2018), highlighting teachers’ role as a facilitator in technology-supported interaction, which includes, for instance, a higher appreciation of open-ended questions in their discourse with the students.

Limitations

Limitations of this study arise from its nature as a case study and the associated limited sample size, observing only two teachers and their classes. The limited sample size restricts any generalizability for technology-enriched instruction in early childhood education. The quasi-experimental design, using existing groups without random assignment, presents practical constraints, suggesting the need for randomized control trials (RCT) to confirm the findings. Nevertheless, the study addresses the often-requested claim that digital technologies should be examined in specific learning contexts and with regard to established quality criteria (Aladé et al., 2016; Hassler et al., 2016; Liu & Hwang, 2023). Future research should consider examining teachers’ knowledge and attitudes towards technology integration as well as children’s conceptual knowledge and language competence.

Conclusions

Despite the prevalence of digitalization and the ready access to digital devices in early childhood education, the significance of direct interaction between teachers and children remains undiminished. The study demonstrates that, in a play-based learning scenario, digital devices can enrich interactions between teachers and children, aligning with established theories of interaction quality and instructional design. The concern about experiencing isolation in front of the screen appears unfounded, as children can always be encouraged to verbally participate. The study proposes the simple video function of tablet computers to deepen content-specific discussions about natural science phenomena. Future studies should examine technology-supported interactions in different content areas, considering both the disposition- and performance-related components of teachers’ professional competence and target variables for children’s conceptual understanding.