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Scalloped hammerhead shark Sphyrna lewini relative abundance comparison in three offshore marine protected areas of the Eastern Tropical Pacific

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Abstract

The Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) is one of the last regions where large aggregations of the critically endangered scalloped hammerhead shark (Sphyrna lewini) can still be observed. In this regard, we comparatively assessed the seasonality in S. lewini’s relative abundance within three marine protected areas (MPAs) of the ETP and explored its relationship with environmental factors such as temperature. Abundance standardization via generalized linear mixed models revealed that Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) held an overall higher relative abundance of S. lewini when compared to Cocos Island (Costa Rica) and Malpelo (Colombia). The greatest relative abundance was observed from June to October for Cocos, followed by Galapagos (January, September, and November) and Malpelo (December, February, and March). Our results suggest that S. lewini observed relative abundances are significantly affected by water temperature and years (all three sites), and by the seasons, dive schedule, visibility and moon phase (to a lesser extend). This research contributes to the understanding of the temporal and spatial fluctuations of S. lewini at oceanic aggregation sites to improve the decision-making tools for the integral regional climate-smart management of the species. We recommended future studies to model the effect of climate change in the abundance at aggregation sites and potential distribution shifts across the ETP.

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Data availability

The data analyzed for this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Code availability

The code for this study is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank to Iris & Michael Smith, Lindblad Expeditions, National Geographic, the Secretariat for Higher Education, Science, Technology and Innovation of the Ecuadorean Government; Blake, Kimberly and George Rapier Charitable Trust; the Directorate of the Galapagos National Park; Galapagos Conservancy; Galapagos Conservation Trust; National Parks of Colombia; Patrimonial Fund of Colombia; Undersea Hunter and National Parks of Costa Rica for the funding and support in all the stages of this work. Also, we would like to thank to Callie Veelenturf, Juan Carlos Murillo, and Abel Trejo for the assistance, help and revisions during the development of this research.

Funding

This work was supported partially by Iris & Michael Smith; Lindblad Expeditions; National Geographic; the Secretariat for Higher Education, Science, Technology and Innovation of the Ecuadorean Government; Blake, Kimberly and George Rapier Charitable Trust; the Directorate of the Galapagos National Park; Galapagos Conservancy; Galapagos Conservation Trust; National Parks of Colombia; Patrimonial Fund of Colombia and Undersea Hunter.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador – Sede Manabí, Eudoro Loor St. & 25 de Diciembre St., Portoviejo, Manabí, 130103, Ecuador

    Estefanía Bravo-Ormaza

  2. MigraMar, 2099 Westshore Rd, Bodega Bay, CA, 94923, USA

    Estefanía Bravo-Ormaza, Randall Arauz, Sandra Bessudo, Alex Hearn, A. Peter Klimley, Jean López-Macías, Todd Steiner & César Peñaherrera-Palma

  3. Marine Watch International, San Francisco, CA, 94129, USA

    Randall Arauz

  4. Fundación Malpelo y Otros Ecosistemas Marinos, Carrera 11 No 87-51, Bogotá, Colombia

    Sandra Bessudo & Felipe Ladino-Archila

  5. Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Avenida Diego de Robles & Vía Interoceánica, Cumbayá, Pichincha, Ecuador

    Alex Hearn

  6. Department of Wildlife, Fish & Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA

    A. Peter Klimley

  7. Turtle Island Restoration Network, 9255 Sir Francis Drake Boulevard, Olema, CA, 94950, USA

    Todd Steiner

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  1. Estefanía Bravo-Ormaza
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  9. César Peñaherrera-Palma
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Contributions

E.B.—conceived the research, the ideas to explain the results, developed the data analysis, structured the manuscript and led its writing. R.A.—developed the data collection, helped in the writing of the manuscript and was part of the funding. S.B.—developed the data collection, helped in the writing of the manuscript and was part of the funding. A.H.—developed the data collection, helped in the writing of the manuscript and was part of the funding. A.P.K.—developed the data collection, revised and re-drafted the article critically for important intellectual content and the final approval of the version to be submitted for publication. F.L.—developed the data collection, helped in the writing of the manuscript and was part of the funding. J.L.—contributed with new data analysis and manuscript writing. T.S.—developed the data collection, helped in the writing of the manuscript and was part of the funding. C.P.—developed the data collection, conceived the research, the ideas to explain the results, developed the data analysis, structured the manuscript, and led its writing.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Estefanía Bravo-Ormaza.

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Ethics approval

No animals were handled or experimented on during any part of this research. Our underwater visual survey methods complied with animal welfare laws, guidelines, and policies as approved by the University of Tasmania Animal Ethics Committee (permit number A13641), by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the University of California – Davis (permit number IACUC PROTOCOL #16022), by the Directorate of the Galapagos National Park (permit number PC-60-13), by Cocos Island Marine Conservation Area (ACMIC) from National System of Conservation Area (SINAC) of Costa Rica (permit number ACMIC-008, ACMIC-012, ACMIC-006, ACMIC-001), and by the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development of Colombia (permit number DTPA 002-18).

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Bravo-Ormaza, E., Arauz, R., Bessudo, S. et al. Scalloped hammerhead shark Sphyrna lewini relative abundance comparison in three offshore marine protected areas of the Eastern Tropical Pacific. Environ Biol Fish 106, 1767–1784 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-023-01454-6

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