Abstract
This study investigated pedagogical agent (with/without) and feedback (explanatory/confirmatory) types on achievement, flow experience, and cognitive load in a digital game-based learning environment. We developed a game about spreadsheets and prepared four versions of the game in the context of pedagogical agent and feedback types. Through the mixed-methods sequential exploratory design, we applied game versions in four experimental groups (154 undergraduate students) within a two-week spreadsheet subject. We collected quantitative (achievement test, flow experience scale, cognitive load scale, elapsed time, skill, and challenge-level questions) and qualitative (semi-structured interview technique and open-ended interview form) data. According to the results, the achievement scores of all participants increased regardless of the pedagogical agent and feedback type. There was no significant difference in cognitive load, flow experience, skill level, or challenge level according to the pedagogical agent and feedback types. Confirmatory feedback groups spent more time than explanatory feedback groups. The dependent variables had significant relationships. Students expressed that game-based learning promoted improvements in the learning process.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Admiraal, W., Huizenga, J., Akkerman, S., & ten Dam, G. (2011). The concept of flow in collaborative game-based learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(3), 1185–1194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.12.013
Alexiou, A., & Schippers, M. C. (2018). Digital game elements, user experience and learning: A conceptual framework. Education and Information Technologies, 23(6), 2545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-018-9730-6
Atkinson, R. K. (2002). Optimizing learning from examples using animated pedagogical agents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 416–427. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.94.2.416
Bakan, U., & Bakan, U. (2018). Game-based learning studies in education journals: A systematic review of recent trends. Actualidades Pedagógicas, 72, 119–145. https://doi.org/10.19052/ap.5245
Bartsch, R. A., & Cobern, K. M. (2003). Effectiveness of PowerPoint presentations in lectures. Computers and Education, 41(1), 77–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1315(03)00027-7
Barzilai, S., & Blau, I. (2014). Scaffolding game-based learning: Impact on learning achievements, perceived learning, and game experiences. Computers and Education, 70, 65–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2013.08.003
Baylor, A. L. (2002). Expanding preservice teachers’ metacognitive awareness of instructional planning through pedagogical agents. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02504991
Baylor, A. L., & Kim, S. (2009). Designing nonverbal communication for pedagogical agents: When less is more. Computers in Human Behavior, 25(2), 450–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2008.10.008
Becker, K. (2021). What’s the difference between gamification, serious games, educational games, and game-based learning? Academia Letters, 209, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.20935/al209
Beserra, V., Nussbaum, M., Oteo, M., & Martin, R. (2014). Measuring cognitive load in practicing arithmetic using educational video games on a shared display. Computers in Human Behavior, 41, 351–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.10.016
Boyle, E. A., Hainey, T., Connolly, T. M., Gray, G., Earp, J., Ott, M., Lim, T., Ninaus, M., Ribeiro, C., & Pereira, J. (2016). An update to the systematic literature review of empirical evidence of the impacts and outcomes of computer games and serious games. Computers and Education, 94, 178–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.003
Brom, C., Buchtová, M., Šisler, V., Děchtěrenko, F., Palme, R., & Glenk, L. M. (2014). Flow, social interaction anxiety and salivary cortisol responses in serious games: A quasi-experimental study. Computers and Education, 79, 69–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.07.001
Buil, I., Catalán, S., & Martínez, E. (2019). The influence of flow on learning outcomes: An empirical study on the use of clickers. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(1), 428–439. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12561
Burgos, D., Nimwegen, C. van, Oostendorp, H. van, & Koper, R. (2007). Game-based learning and the role of feedback: a case study. Advanced Technology for Learning, 4(4). https://doi.org/10.2316/journal.208.2007.4.208-0918
Byrne, C., MacDonald, R., & Carlton, L. (2003). Assessing creativity in musical compositions: Flow as an assessment tool. British Journal of Music Education, 20(3), 277–290. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0265051703005448
Byun, J., & Loh, C. S. (2015). Audial engagement: Effects of game sound on learner engagement in digital game-based learning environments. Computers in Human Behavior, 46, 129–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.12.052
Calvo-Ferrer, J. R. (2021). Effectiveness of type of feedback and frequency on digital game-based L2 vocabulary acquisition. International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 11(3), 38–55. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJGBL.2021070103
Castro-Alonso, J.C., Ayres, P., Sweller, J. (2019). Instructional visualizations, cognitive load theory, and visuospatial processing. In: Castro-Alonso, J. (eds) Visuospatial Processing for Education in Health and Natural Sciences. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20969-8_5
Chang, C. C., Liang, C., Chou, P. N., & Lin, G. Y. (2017). Is game-based learning better in flow experience and various types of cognitive load than non-game-based learning? Perspective from multimedia and media richness. Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 218–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.031
Chang, C. C., Warden, C. A., Liang, C., & Lin, G. Y. (2018). Effects of digital game-based learning on achievement, flow and overall cognitive load. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 34(4). https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.2961
Chen, Y. C. (2017). Empirical study on the effect of digital game-based instruction on students’ learning motivation and achievement. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 13(7). https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2017.00711a
Chou, T. J., & Ting, C. C. (2003). The role of flow experience in cyber-game addiction. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 6(6), 663–675. https://doi.org/10.1089/109493103322725469
Clarebout, G., Elen, J., Johnson, W. L., & Shaw, E. (2002). Animated pedagogical agents: An opportunity to be grasped? Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 11(3), 267–286.
Clark, R. E., & Choi, S. (2007). The questionable benefits of pedagogical agents: Response to Veletsianos. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 36(4), 379–381. https://doi.org/10.2190/2781-3471-67MG-5033
Clark, D. B., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Killingsworth, S. S. (2016). Digital games, design, and learning. Review of Educational Research, 86(1), 79–122. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315582065
Coller, B. D., & Scott, M. J. (2009). Effectiveness of using a video game to teach a course in mechanical engineering. Computers and Education, 53(3), 900–912. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.05.012
Conrad, F., Couper, M., Tourangeau, R., & Peytchev, A. (2005). Impact of progress feedback on task completion: First impressions matter. Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems - Proceedings, 1921–1924. https://doi.org/10.1145/1056808.1057057
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Harper & Row.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2013). Flow: The psychology of happiness. Random House.
Dinçer, S., & Yavuz, C. (2013). The effect of the success of the student educational agent utilization: A meta-analysis study. International Journal of Human Sciences, 10(Special Issue), 49–66.
Dinçer, S., & Doğanay, A. (2016). Using pedagogical agents on computer assisted instruction: A synthesis of studies. Pamukkale University Journal of Education, 39, 83–99. https://doi.org/10.9779/puje691
Dinçer, S., & Doğanay, A. (2017). The effects of multiple-pedagogical agents on learners’ academic success, motivation, and cognitive load. Computers and Education, 111, 74–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.04.005
Duffy, S., & Smith, J. (2014). Cognitive load in the multi-player prisoner’s dilemma game: Are there brains in games? Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics, 51, 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2014.01.006
Erhel, S., & Jamet, E. (2013). Digital game-based learning: Impact of instructions and feedback on motivation and learning effectiveness. Computers and Education, 67, 156–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2013.02.019
Eveland, W. P., & Dunwoody, S. (2001). User control and structural isomorphism or disorientation and cognitive load? Learning from the web versus print. Communication Research, 28(1), 48–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365001028001002
Fu, F. L., Su, R. C., & Yu, S. C. (2009). EGameFlow: A scale to measure learners’ enjoyment of e-learning games. Computers and Education, 52(1), 101–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2008.07.004
Garris, R., Ahlers, R., & Driskell, J. E. (2002). Games, motivation, and learning: A research and practice model. Simulation and Gaming, 33(4), 441–467. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878102238607
Goldberg, B., & Cannon-Bowers, J. (2015). Feedback source modality effects on training outcomes in a serious game: Pedagogical agents make a difference. Computers in Human Behavior, 52, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.05.008
Green, S. B., & Salkind, N. J. (2010). Using SPSS for Windows and Macintosh: Analyzing and understanding data. Prentice Hall Press.
Gresalfi, M. S., & Barnes, J. (2016). Designing feedback in an immersive videogame: Supporting student mathematical engagement. Educational Technology Research and Development, 64(1), 65–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-015-9411-8
Guo, Y. R., & Goh, D. H. L. (2016). Evaluation of affective embodied agents in an information literacy game. Computers and Education, 103, 59–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.09.013
Guo, Y. R., Goh, D. H. L., Luyt, B., Sin, S. C. J., & Ang, R. P. (2015). The effectiveness and acceptance of an affective information literacy tutorial. Computers and Education, 87, 368–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.07.015
Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487
Hawlitschek, A., & Joeckel, S. (2017). Increasing the effectiveness of digital educational games: The effects of a learning instruction on students’ learning, motivation and cognitive load. Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 79–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.040
Heidig, S., & Clarebout, G. (2011). Do pedagogical agents make a difference to student motivation and learning? Educational Research Review, 6(1), 27–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2010.07.004
Hong, J. C., Hwang, M. Y., Tai, K. H., Lin, P. H., & Lin, P. C. (2020). Learning progress in a Chinese order of stroke game: The effects of intrinsic cognitive load and gameplay interest mediated by flow experience. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 58(4), 842–862. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633119881471
Hsiao, H. S., Chang, C. S., Lin, C. Y., & Hu, P. M. (2014). Development of children’s creativity and manual skills within digital game-based learning environment. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 30(4), 377–395. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12057
Hwang, G. J., Wu, P. H., & Chen, C. C. (2012). An online game approach for improving students’ learning performance in web-based problem-solving activities. Computers and Education, 59(4), 1246–1256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.05.009
İzmirli, S., Kırmacı, Ö., & Kahraman, A. (2017). Current trends in pedagogical agent researches: Content analysis of articles in 2009–2014. Ege Eğitim Dergisi, 18(1), 213–243. https://doi.org/10.12984/egeefd.328382
Johnson, C. I., & Priest, H. A. (2014). The feedback principle in multimedia learning. In The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning, Second Edition (pp. 449–463). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139547369.023
Johnson, C. I., Bailey, S. K. T., & van Buskirk, W. L. (2017). Designing effective feedback messages in serious games and simulations: A research review. In Instructional Techniques to Facilitate Learning and Motivation of Serious Games (pp. 119–140). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-39298-1_7
Kalyuga, S., & Plass, J. L. (2011). Evaluating and Managing Cognitive Load in Games. In Handbook of Research on Effective Electronic Gaming in Education (pp. 719–737). https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-59904-808-6.ch041
Kiili, K. (2005a). Content creation challenges and flow experience in educational games: The IT-Emperor case. Internet and Higher Education, 8(3), 183–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2005.06.001
Kiili, K. (2005b). Digital game-based learning: Towards an experiential gaming model. Internet and Higher Education, 8(1), 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2004.12.001
Kiili, K., de Freitas, S., Arnab, S., & Lainema, T. (2012). The design principles for flow experience in educational games. Procedia Computer Science, 15, 78–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2012.10.060
Kılıç, E., & Karadeniz, Ş. (2004). Specifying students; cognitive load and disorientation level in hypermedia. Educational Administration: Theory and Practice, 40(40), 562–579.
Kılıç-Çakmak, E. (2007). The bottle neck in multimedia: Cognitive overload. Gazi University Journal of Gazi Education Faculty, 27(2), 1–24.
Kim, Y., & Baylor, A. L. (2016). Research-based design of pedagogical agent roles: A review, progress, and recommendations. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26(1), 160–169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-015-0055-y
Korakakis, G., Pavlatou, E. A., Palyvos, J. A., & Spyrellis, N. (2009). 3D visualization types in multimedia applications for science learning: A case study for 8th grade students in Greece. Computers and Education, 52(2), 390–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2008.09.011
Koster, R. (2005). Theory of Fun for Game Design. Paraglyph Press.
LAERD. (2019). Greenhouse-Geisser Correction. Retrieved December 18, 2022, from https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/sphericity-statistical-guide-2.php
Lee, M. J., Ko, A. J., & Kwan, I. (2013). In-game assessments increase novice programmers’ engagement and level completion speed. ICER ’13: Proceedings of the Ninth Annual International ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research, 153–160. https://doi.org/10.1145/2493394.2493410
Liao, C. W., Chen, C. H., & Shih, S. J. (2019). The interactivity of video and collaboration for learning achievement, intrinsic motivation, cognitive load, and behavior patterns in a digital game-based learning environment. Computers and Education, 133, 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.01.013
Liu, Y., & Rojewski, J. (2013). Effects of instructional support in game-based learning: An analysis of educational games from design and application perspectives. In R. McBride & M. Searson (Eds.), Proceedings of SITE 2013-Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (pp. 43–50). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).
Martha, A. S. D., & Santoso, H. (2019). The design and impact of the pedagogical agent: A systematic literature review. The Journal of Educators Online, 16(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.9743/jeo.2019.16.1.8
Mason, B. J., & Bruning, R. (2001). Providing feedback in computer-based instruction: What the research tells us. Retrieved November 23, 2022, from http://dwb.unl.edu/Edit/MB/MasonBruning.html
Mayer, R. E., & DaPra, C. S. (2012). An embodiment effect in computer-based learning with animated pedagogical agents. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 18(3), 239–252. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028616
Mayer, R., & Johnson, C. (2010). Adding instructional features that promote learning in a game-like environment. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 42(3), 241–265. https://doi.org/10.2190/EC.42.3.a
Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia learning, second edition. In Multimedia Learning, Second Edition. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511811678
Mayer, R. E. (2017). Using multimedia for e-learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 33(5), 403–423. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12197
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2005). Role of guidance, reflection, and interactivity in an agent-based multimedia game. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(1), 117–128. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.97.1.117
Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2014). The concept of flow. In M. Csikszentmihalyi (Ed.), Flow and the Foundations of Positive Psychology: The Collected Works of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (pp. 239–263). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9088-8_16
Nikolayev, M., Reich, S. M., Muskat, T., Tadjbakhsh, N., & Callaghan, M. N. (2021). Review of feedback in edutainment games for preschoolers in the USA. Journal of Children and Media, 15(3), 358–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2020.1815227
Osman, K., & Lee, T. T. (2014). Impact of interactive multimedia module with pedagogical agents on students’ understanding and motivation in the learning of electrochemistry. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 12(2), 395–421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-013-9407-y
Paas, F. G. W. C., & van Merrienboer, J. J. G. (1993). The efficiency of instructional conditions: An approach to combine mental effort and performance measures. Human Factors, 35(4), 737–743. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872089303500412
Pearce, J. M., Ainley, M., & Howard, S. (2005). The ebb and flow of online learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 21(5), 745–771. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0747-5632(04)00036-6
Perttula, A., Kiili, K., Lindstedt, A., & Tuomi, P. (2017). Flow experience in game based learning – a systematic literature review. International Journal of Serious Games, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.17083/ijsg.v4i1.151
Prensky, M. (2001). Fun, play and games : What makes games engaging. Digital Game-Based Learning, 5(1), 5–31.
Prensky, M. (2002). The motivation of gameplay: The real twenty first century learning revolution. On the Horizon, 10(1), 5–11. https://doi.org/10.1108/10748120210431349
Quaigrain, K., & Arhin, A. K. (2017). Using reliability and item analysis to evaluate a teacher-developed test in educational measurement and evaluation. Cogent Education, 4(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2017.1301013
Sanjamsai, S., & Phukao, D. (2018). Flow experience in computer game playing among Thai university students. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, 39(2), 175–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2018.03.003
Sherry, J. L. (2004). Flow and media enjoyment. Communication Theory, 14(4), 328–347.
Song, M., & Zhang, S. (2008). EFM: A Model for Educational Game Design. In Z. Pan, X. Zhang, A. el Rhalibi, W. Woo, & Y. Li (Eds.), Technologies for E-Learning and Digital Entertainment (pp. 509–517). Springer.
Statista. (2021). Share of internet users worldwide who play video games on any device as of 3rd quarter 2021, by region. Retrieved November 28, 2022, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/195768/global-gaming-reach-by-country/
Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2019). Cognitive architecture and instructional design: 20 years later. Educational Psychology Review, 31(2), 261–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5
Taguchi, N., Dixon, D. H., Qin, Y., & Chen, Y. (2022). Pedagogic tasks in digital games: Effects of feedback conditions and individual characteristics on learning request-making. Language Teaching Research, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688221110871
Terzidou, T., & Tsiatsos, T. (2014). The impact of pedagogical agents in 3D collaborative serious games. IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), 2014, 1175–1182. https://doi.org/10.1109/EDUCON.2014.7096838
Tsai, F. H., Tsai, C. C., & Lin, K. Y. (2015). The evaluation of different gaming modes and feedback types on game-based formative assessment in an online learning environment. Computers and Education, 81, 259–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.10.013
Wang, T. L., & Tseng, Y. F. (2014). An empirical study: Develop and evaluation a mobile serious game on environmental education. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Computer Science and Education, ICCCSE 2014. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCSE.2014.6926476
Wang, L. H., Chen, B., Hwang, G. J., Guan, J. Q., & Wang, Y. Q. (2022). Effects of digital game-based STEM education on students’ learning achievement: a meta-analysis. International Journal of STEM Education, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-022-00344-0
Weber, R., Tamborini, R., Westcott-Baker, A., & Kantor, B. (2009). Theorizing flow and media enjoyment as cognitive synchronization of attentional and reward networks. Communication Theory, 19(4), 397–422. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2009.01352.x
Wiggins, J. B., Wilkinson, J., Baigorria, L., Huang, Y., Boyer, K. E., Lynch, C., & Wiebe, E. (2019). From doodles to designs: Participatory pedagogical agent design with elementary students. Proceedings of the 18th ACM International Conference on Interaction Design and Children, IDC 2019. https://doi.org/10.1145/3311927.3325321
Wilhelm, O., Hildebrandt, A., & Oberauer, K. (2013). What is working memory capacity, and how can we measure it? Frontiers in Psychology, 4(JUL). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00433
Wisniewski, B., Zierer, K., & Hattie, J. (2020). The Power of feedback revisited: A meta-analysis of educational feedback research. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03087
Woo, J. C. (2014). Digital game-based learning supports student motivation, cognitive success, and performance outcomes. Educational Technology & Society, 17(3), 291–307.
Wood, P. (2008). Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research. The American Statistician, 62(1), 91–92. https://doi.org/10.1198/tas.2008.s98
Wouters, P., & van Oostendorp, H. (2013). A meta-analytic review of the role of instructional support in game-based learning. Computers and Education, 60(1), 412–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.07.018
Wu, C. H., Tzeng, Y. L., & Huang, Y. M. (2020). Measuring performance in leaning process of digital game-based learning and static E-learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(5), 2215–2237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09765-6
Xu, K. M., Koorn, P., de Koning, B., Skuballa, I. T., Lin, L., Henderikx, M., Marsh, H. W., Sweller, J., & Paas, F. (2021). A growth mindset lowers perceived cognitive load and improves learning: Integrating motivation to cognitive load. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113(6), 1177–1191. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000631
Xu, P. (2016). Solutions to cognitive (over) load in game-based learning using learning experience design for K-12 education: a review of the literature [Master of Arts, The University of Texas at Austin]. https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/41660/XU-MASTERSREPORT-2016.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Yang, J. C., Lin, M. Y. D., & Chen, S. Y. (2018). Effects of anxiety levels on learning performance and gaming performance in digital game-based learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 34(3), 324–334. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12245
Yen, W. C., & Lin, H. H. (2022). Investigating the effect of flow experience on learning performance and entrepreneurial self-efficacy in a business simulation systems context. Interactive Learning Environments, 30(9), 1593–1608. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1734624
Yıldırım, Z., & Baran, M. (2021). A comparative analysis of the effect of physical activity games and digital games on 9th grade students’ achievement in physics. Education and Information Technologies, 26(1), 543–563. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10280-7
Zhan, Z., He, L., Tong, Y., Liang, X., Guo, S., & Lan, X. (2022). The effectiveness of gamification in programming education: Evidence from a meta-analysis. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 3, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100096
Zheyu, L., Weilan, Z., Jihui, Z., Jianqing, G., Guo, K., & Weijin, C. (2021). The more complex the feedback, the better? A study on the design of feedback types in educational games. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 24th International Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work in Design, CSCWD 2021. https://doi.org/10.1109/CSCWD49262.2021.9437664
Acknowledgements
This study is the first author’s PhD dissertation, which the second author supervised at Anadolu University, Eskişehir, Türkiye, in 2020.
The Turkish Academy of Sciences and Teknofest awarded the PhD dissertation first prize in the field of Social Sciences and Humanities in 2021.
Funding
This research did not receive grants from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Yasemin Kahyaoğlu Erdoğmuş: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing, Visualization.
Adile Aşkım Kurt: Data curation, Supervision, Writing-Original Draft Preparation, Reviewing and Editing.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interests
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.
Ethical approval
The research proposal was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Anadolu University (Approval number: 67209).
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Kahyaoğlu Erdoğmuş, Y., Kurt, A.A. Digital game-based learning: Pedagogical agent and feedback types on achievement, flow experience, and cognitive load. Educ Inf Technol (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12368-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12368-2