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Obligation-based bribes in Vietnam: A view from the norm of reciprocity

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Abstract

Studies of bribery have been heavily influenced by the cost/benefit calculation, leaving social relationship of the involved parties under-explored. We propose the norm of reciprocity as a complement theoretical lens to explain bribery exchanges and explore different types of obligation that induce bribery. Based on qualitative data from a sample of government officials in Vietnam, we found that many bribery exchanges are governed by the norm of reciprocity, i.e., obligation-based bribery. In these obligation-based bribery exchanges, the parties extend and return illegal favors based on their senses of obligation to each other, in adjacent to cost/benefit calculation. We also uncovered two types of obligation, including pragmatic and moral, and found that these types of obligation are developed through different practices. Failure to address this social element of bribery would hinder much of anti-corruption effort. The study suggests that interactions between the norm of reciprocity and wider ethical norms in governing bribery should be further addressed by both researchers and practitioners.

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Acknowledgements

This research is funded by the National Economics University, Hanoi, Vietnam.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute for Sustainable Development, National Economics University, Hà Nội, Vietnam

    Thang V. Nguyen

  2. Faculty of Marketing, National Economics University, Hà Nội, Vietnam

    Minh H. Doan & Nhung H. Tran

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  1. Thang V. Nguyen
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  2. Minh H. Doan
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  3. Nhung H. Tran
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Correspondence to Minh H. Doan.

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Appendix: Focus group guideline

Appendix: Focus group guideline

(The guideline provides a general direction and structure of the discussion. The questions are suggestive. The moderators are expected to be flexible in leading the discussions.)

Introduction

  • Objectives: To gain insights into the nature of bribery exchanges in order to offer recommendations to the government’s anticorruption agenda

  • Confidentiality and disclaimers: Participants’ identities are kept confidential and they are not representing their organizations

Section 1: Prevalence and nature of bribery exchanges

Cite the government’s evaluation that the combat of corruption and bribery in Vietnam has progressed slowly. Then ask:

  • In your opinion why it is so hard to combat corruption in Vietnam (each gives 1 to 3 causes)?

(The causes could be categorized, for example: lack of regulation framework, weak enforcement, low salaries, relationship culture, complex and subtle forms of corruption, etc.). Explain that the discussion focuses on the nature and forms of bribery. Then ask:

  • Based on your experience, what does “bribery” mean? Could you give examples?

  • What are some forms of exchanges/relationships that may contain a risk of bribery? (The moderators could also ask participants to give comments on each other’s examples or the forms raised in other focus groups).

  • Describe a recent favor-exchange situation (or bribery-risk exchange situation) you know clearly (i.e., from your own observation or reliable sources)? Could you please explain how the parties ensured their partner will keep promises?

Section 2: Emotion and justification in bribery-risk exchange/relationship

  • What induce or pressure people in similar work settings of yours to engage in bribery-risk exchange/relationship?

  • How would an official justify for his/her bribery-risk exchanges/relationships?

  • What are typical emotions or feelings an official face when engaging in a bribery-risk exchange/relationship?

Section 3: Current anti-corruption measures

  • In your opinion, how effective are the current anti-corruption measures (examples include those that regulate gift-giving, conflict of interest, backyard companies, nepotism and favoritism, asset declaration, etc.)?

  • Given your discussions on various ways a bribery-exchange/relationship could be disguised, what anti-corruption measures would you recommend?

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Nguyen, T.V., Doan, M.H. & Tran, N.H. Obligation-based bribes in Vietnam: A view from the norm of reciprocity. Crime Law Soc Change 78, 125–144 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-022-10017-2

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