Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Human trafficking for criminal exploitation and participation in armed conflicts: the Colombian case

  • Published:
Crime, Law and Social Change Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper shows how human trafficking for criminal exploitation can occur in environments of armed conflict in which adults and even children are recruited to fight. It proposes that these people’s status as victims should be taken into account when determining the degree of their criminal responsibility within the framework of a transitional justice process such as the one applied in Colombia under the 2005 Justice and Peace Act (Ley de Justicia y Paz). In order to prove that some victims of human trafficking exploited in the Colombian armed conflict have not been duly identified as such, it presents the main results of a qualitative study carried out with 20 women inmates in Colombian prisons who were members of guerrilla groups and were demobilised under the terms of the Justice and Peace Act. The study shows how the life stories narrated by 16 of these women make it possible to identify them as victims of trafficking for criminal exploitation even though they have not been classified as such. In 80% of the analysed cases, the women suffered episodes of victimisation that led them to join and remain in the armed group, often against their will. These episodes involved the use of means to recruit them and to force them to stay active in the group that show they underwent a genuine process of human trafficking.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Villacampa, C. (2011). El delito de trata de seres humanos. Una incriminación dictada desde el Derecho internacional. Cizur menor: Thomson Reuters-Aranzadi.

    Google Scholar 

  2. UNODC (2014). Global report on trafficking in persons, 2014. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/publications.html#Reports. Accessed 1 June 2016.

  3. Eurostat-European Commission (2013). Trafficking in human beings, 2013. https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/sites/antitrafficking/files/trafficking_in_human_beings_-_dghome-eurostat_en_1.pdf. Accessed 1 June 2016.

  4. Eurostat-European Commission (2015). Trafficking in human beings, 2015. https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/publications/trafficking-human-beings-eurostat-2015-edition_en. Accessed 1 June 2016.

  5. Hales, L., & Gelsthorpe, L. (2012). The criminalisation of migrant women. Cambridge: Institute of Criminology-University of Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Villacampa, C., & Torres, N. (2012). Mujeres víctimas de trata en prisión en España. Revista de Derecho Penal y Criminología, 8, 411–494.

    Google Scholar 

  7. RACE (2015). Trafficking for Forced Criminal Activities and Begging in Europe. Exploratory Study and Good Practice Examples, 2015. http://www.antislavery.org/includes/documents/cm_docs/2014/t/trafficking_for_forced_criminal_activities_and_begging_in_europe.pdf. Accessed 1 June 2016.

  8. Holmes, L. (2010). Conclusions: quadruple victimisation? In L. Holmes (Ed.), Trafficking and human rights: European an Asia-Pacific Perspectives (pp. 176–206). Cheltenham, Northampton: Edward Elgar.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  9. Bales, K., Trodd, Z., & Williamson, A. K. (2009). Modern Slavery: the Secret World of 27 Million People. Oxford: Oneworld Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Scarpa, S. (2008). Trafficking in human beings: modern slavery. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  11. US Department of State (2015). Trafficking in Persons Report 2015. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/245365.pdf. Accessed 1 June 2016.

  12. Carmona, J. A., Moreno, F., & Tobón, J. F. (2012). Child soldiers in Colombia: Five Views. Universitas Psychologica, II, 3, 755–768.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Defensoría del Pueblo (2014). Informe Defensorial. Prevención del reclutamiento de niños, niñas y adolescentes. Análisis de la política pública con enfoque étnico. Bogotá: Colombia. http://www.defensoria.gov.co/public/pdf/informedefensorialreclutamiento.pdf. Accessed 1 June 2016.

  14. Defensoría del Pueblo & UNICEF (2006). La niñez y sus derechos. Informe defensorial. Boletín No. 9. http://www.unicef.org/colombia/pdf/Boletin-defensoria.pdf . Accessed 1 June 2016.

  15. Moreno, F., Carmona, J. A., & Tobón, F. (2010). ¿Por qué se vinculan las niñas a los grupos guerrilleros y paramilitares en Colombia? Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 42(3), 453–467.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Patiño Orozco, R. A., & Patiño Gaviria, C. D. (2012). Configuración de la identidad de desertores de la guerrilla colombiana. Psicologia & Sociedade, 24(3), 517–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. UN Security Council (2009). Annual report of the Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflict S/2009/434.

  18. UN Security Council (2012). Report of the Secretary-General on children and armed conflict in Colombia. S/2012/171.

  19. UN General Assembly Security Council (2015). Annual report of the Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflict. A/69/926-S/2015/409.

  20. UN General Assembly (2015). Report of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict. A/70/162.

  21. Waschefort, G. (2015). International Law and Child Soldiers. Oxford: Hart Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Graf, R. (2012). The international Criminal Court and Child Soldiers. An appraisal of the Lubanga Judgement. Journal of International Criminal Justice, 10, 945–969.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Jørgensen, N. H. B. (2012). Child Soldiers and the Parameters of International Criminal Law. Chinese Journal of International Law, 11(4), 657–688.

  24. Blom, F., & Pereda, N. (2009). Niños y niñas soldado: consecuencias psicológicas e intervención. Anuario de Psicología, 40(3), 329–344.

    Google Scholar 

  25. De Silva, D. H. G., Hobbs, C. J., & Hanks, H. (2001). Conscription for children in armed conflict- a form of child abuse. A study of 19 former child soldiers. Child Abuse Review, 10, 125–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Kanagaratnam, P., Ruandalen, M., & Asbjornsen, A. E. (2005). Ideological commitment and posttraumatic stress in former Tamil child soldiers. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 46, 511–520.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Kohrt, B. A., Jordans, M. J. D., Tol, W. A., Speckman, R. A., Maharjan, S. M., Worthman, C. M., & Komproe, I. H. (2008). Comparison of mental health between former child soldiers and children never conscripted by armed groups in Nepal. JAMA, 300, 691–702.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Santacruz, M. L., & Arana, R. E. (2002). Experiencias e impacto psicosocial en niños y niñas soldado de la guerra civil de El Salvador. Biomédica, 22, 383–397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Wessels, M. G. (1998). Children, armed conflict, and peace. Journal of Peace Research, 35, 635–646.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Happold, M. (2006). The Age of Criminal Responsibility for International Crimes under International Law. In K. Arts & V. Popovski (Eds.), International Criminal Accountability and the Rights of Children (pp. 69–84). The Hague: TMC Asser Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  31. MacDiarmid, C. (2006). What Do They Know?. Child-Defendants and the Age of Criminal Responsibility: A National Law Perspective. In K. Arts & V. Popovski (Eds.), International Criminal Accountability and the Rights of Children (pp. 85–96). The Hague: TMC Asser Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  32. Veale, A. (2006). The Criminal Responsibility of Former Child Soldiers: Contributions from Psychology. In K. Arts & V. Popovski (Eds.), International Criminal Accountability and the Rights of Children (pp. 97–198). The Hague: TMC Asser Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  33. Deluyn, I., Vanderhole, W., Parmentier, S., & Mels, C. (2015). Victims and/or perpetrators? Towards and interdisciplinary dialogue on child soldiers. BMC International Health & Human Rights, 15(28), 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Derluyn, I., Mels, C., Parmentier, S., & Vanderhole, W. (Eds.). (2012). Remember: Rehabilitation, Reintegration and Reconciliation of War-Affected Children. Cambridge: Intersentia.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Werle, G. (2009). Principles of International Criminal Law (2nd ed.). The Hague: TMC Asser Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  36. Aguirre, J. (2002). Niñez y juventud en el conflicto armado interno en Colombia. In M. Nubia & S. Ruiz (Eds.), Conflicto armado, niñez y juventud. Una perspectiva psicosocial (pp. 100–124). Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Díaz, A. M. (2002b). El debate jurídico normativo: derechos de las niñas y niños desvinculados del conflicto armado. In M. Nubia & S. Ruiz (Eds.), Conflicto armado, niñez y juventud. Una perspectiva psicosocial (pp. 279–288). Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Hinestroza-Arenas, V. (2007). Reclutamiento de niños y niñas: fenómeno invisibilizado, crimen manifiesto. Oasis, 13, 45–60.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Méndez, Y. (2002). Los derechos de los niños y niñas ante el Comité de Derechos del Niño de la ONU (informe alterno y recomendaciones). In M. Nubia & S. Ruiz (Eds.), Conflicto armado, niñez y juventud. Una perspectiva psicosocial (pp. 305–316). Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Montoya, A. M. (2008). Niños y jóvenes en la guerra en Colombia. Aproximación a su reclutamiento y vinculación. Opinión Jurídica, 7(13), 37–51.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Pachón, X. (2009). La infancia perdida en Colombia: los menores en la guerra. Georgetown University, Center for Latin American Studies, Working Paper Series No. 15. http://pdba.georgetown.edu/CLAS%20RESEARCH/Working%20Papers/WP15.pdf. Accessed 1 June 2016.

  42. Ramírez, M. E. (2002). Acuerdos humanitarios e infancia. In M. Nubia & S. Ruiz (Eds.), Conflicto armado, niñez y juventud. Una perspectiva psicosocial (pp. 289–304). Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Piotrowicz, R. (2014). The Non-Punishment Principle in International Law. www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Docs/SeminarsConf/Presentations_workshop/Presetation_RWP.asp . Accessed 1 June 2016.

  44. Díaz, I. L. (2009). El rostro de los invisibles. Víctimas y su derecho a la verdad, justicia, reparación y no repetición. In D. Bondia & M. Ramiro (Eds.), Víctimas invisibles, conflicto armado y resistencia civil en Colombia. Barcelona: Huygens.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Llano, H. (2009). Las víctimas invisibles y el conflicto en Colombia. In D. Bondia & M. Ramiro (Eds.), Víctimas invisibles, conflicto armado y resistencia civil en Colombia. Barcelona: Huygens.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Martínez, P. (2013). Ley de víctimas y restitución de tierras en Colombia en contexto. Un análisis de las contradicciones entre el modelo agrario y la reparación a las víctimas. Berlin: Forschungs- und Dokumentationszentrum Chile-Latinoamerica y Transnational Institute. https://www.tni.org/files/download/martinez-ley-de-victimas-web.pdf. Accessed 1 June 2016.

  47. Valencia, O. L., & Daza, M. F. (2010). Vinculación a grupos armados: un resultado del conflicto armado en Colombia. Revista Diversitas-Perspectivas en Psicología, 6(2), 429–439.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Correa, C., Jiménez, A. M., Ladisch, V., & Salazar, G. (2014). Reparación integradora para niños, niñas y jóvenes víctimas de reclutamiento ilícito en Colombia. Bogotá: Centro Internacional para la Justicia Transicional.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Observatorio de Procesos de Desarme, Desmovilización y Reintegración (ODDR) (2011). Desmovilización, desvinculación y reintegración de mujeres en Colombia 2002–2011. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia y ODDR. http://www.observatorioddr.unal.edu.co/productos_academicos/ODDR_desmovilizacion_desvinculacion_reintegracion_mujeres_colombia2002-2011.pdf. Accessed 1 June 2016.

  50. Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2002). Introduction. The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd ed., pp. 1–41). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Marshall, C., & Rossman, J. B. (2006). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Cid, J., & Martí, J. (2011). El proceso del desistimiento en personas encarceladas. Obstáculos y apoyos. Ámbito social y criminológico. Barcelona: Centre d’Estudis Jurídics i Formació Especialitzada.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Laub, J. H., & Sampsom, R. S. (2001). Understanding Desistance for a Crime. Crime and Justice, 28, 1–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Reinares, F. (2011). Patriotas de la muerte. Por qué han militado en ETA y cuándo abandonan (6th ed.). Madrid: Taurus.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Guest, G., McQueen, K. M., & Namey, E. E. (2012). Applied Thematic Analysis. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  57. Braun, V., & Clark, V. (2006). Using Thematic analysis in Psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Díaz L. C. L. (2002a). Niños y niñas en el conflicto armado: ¿Víctimas o actores? In M. Nubia & S. Ruiz (Eds.), Conflicto armado, niñez y juventud. Una perspectiva psicosocial (pp. 65–76). Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia.

  59. Ruíz, S. (2002). Impactos psicosociales de la participación de niñ@s y jóvenes en el conflicto armado. In M. Nubia & S. Ruiz (Eds.), Conflicto armado, niñez y juventud. Una perspectiva psicosocial (pp. 17–46). Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Sánchez-Blake, E. (2012). De actores armadas a sujetos de paz: mujeres y reconciliación en el conflicto colombiano. Revista la manzana de la discordia, 7(2), 7–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. UNICEF & Human Rights Watch. (2004). Aprenderás a no llorar. In Niños combatientes en Colombia. Bogotá: Editorial Gente nueva.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Sivakumaran, S. (2010). Del dicho al hecho: la ONU y la violencia sexual contra hombres y niños durante conflictos armados. International Review of the Red Cross, 877, 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Lleida, C/ Jaume II, 73, 25002, Lleida, Spain

    Carolina Villacampa

  2. University of San Buenaventura Cali, Avenida 10 de Mayo, La Umbria, Cali, Colombia

    Katherine Flórez

Authors
  1. Carolina Villacampa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Katherine Flórez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Carolina Villacampa.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors state that they have no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Villacampa, C., Flórez, K. Human trafficking for criminal exploitation and participation in armed conflicts: the Colombian case. Crime Law Soc Change 69, 421–445 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-017-9765-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-017-9765-4

Search

Navigation