Skip to main content
Log in

Gangs in Nigeria: an updated examination

  • Published:
Crime, Law and Social Change Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper analyzes gangs in Nigeria, providing an updated examination of their current strategies and activities. The premise of this analysis partly draws on Social Identity Theory, with respect to gang affiliation. Particularly explored are (1) gang cultism as a common phenomenon on college campuses in Nigeria (through their malicious, secret, fraternity-like activities) and (2) the role of Islam in Nigerian gangs. The case study of the ‘Yan Daba, urban gangs particularly found in the northern part of Nigeria, is used to illustrate the authors’ arguments. A brief comparison of Nigerian Muslim gangs with European Muslim gangs is also provided.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Abrahams, R. (1987). Sungusungu: Village vigilante groups in Tanzania. African Affairs, 86(343), 179–196.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Adamu, F. L. (2008). Gender, Hisba and the enforcement of morality in Northern Nigeria. Africa, 78(1), 136–152. doi:10.3366/E0001972008000089.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Aghanya, E. (2005). Behind the screen. Charleston: BookSurge.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Aguda, A. S. (1997). The environment of secret cults. In O. A. Ogunbameru (Ed.), Reading on campus secret cults. Ile-Ife: Kuntel Publishing House.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Aitchison, C., Hopkins, P., & Kwan, M. P. (2007). Geographies of Muslim identities. Hampshire: Ashgate.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Akinbami, G. (1991, April 22). Curbing campus cults (p. 7). National Concord.

  7. Akinyele, R. T. (2001). Ethnic militancy and national stability in Nigeria: A case study of the Oodua People’s Congress. African Affairs, 100(401), 623–640. doi:10.1093/afraf/100.401.623.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Background. (2004). Africa research bulletin: political, social & cultural series, 41(10), 15963.

  9. Baker, B. (2002). When the Bakassi Boys came: Eastern Nigeria confronts vigilantism. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 20, 223–244. doi:10.1080/0258900022000005188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Barker, G. T. (2005). Dying to be men: youth and masculinity and social exclusion. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Brotherton, D., & Barrios, L. (2003). Between black and gold: the street politics of the Almighty Latin King and Queen Nation. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Brown, S. (2007). Understanding political violence: Kenya and Zimbabwe in comparative perspective. Chicago: International Studies Association.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Bursik, R. J., Jr., & Grasmick, H. G. (1993). Neighborhoods and crime: the dimensions of effective community control. New York: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Carreyrou, J. (2005). Culture clash: Muslim groups may gain strength from French riots. Wall Street Journal—Eastern Edition, 22356, A1.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Casey, C. (2008). “Marginal Muslims:” Politics and the perceptual bounds of Islamic authenticity in Northern Nigeria. Africa Today, 54(3), 67–92. doi:10.2979/AFT.2008.54.3.66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Castells, M. (1997). The information age: economy, society and culture (Volume 2: The power of identity). Malden: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Christelow, A. (1987). Property and theft in Kano at the dawn of the groundnut boom. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 20(2), 225–243. doi:10.2307/219841.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Clayton, B. D. (2002). Life after terrorism: what you need to know to survive in today’s world. Boulder: Paladin.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Cohen, A. J. (1955). Delinquent boys: the culture of the gang. Glencoe: Free.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Concha-Eastman, A. J. (2001). Violence: A challenge for public health and for all. Epidemiology and Community Health, 55, 597–599. doi:10.1136/jech.55.8.597.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Cooper, M. E. (2005). Wolf’s revenge. London: Impulse Books.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Crawford, E., & Bull, R. (2006). Teenagers’ difficulties with key words regarding the criminal court process. Psychology, Crime & Law, 12(6), 653–667. doi:10.1080/10236190500489970.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Cults of violence. (2008, August 2). Economist, 387(8591), 49–50.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Daiute, C., Beykont, Z. F., Higson-Smith, C., & Nucci, L. (2006). International perspectives on youth conflict and development. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  25. ‘dan Asabe, A. (1991). ‘Yan Daba: The “terrorists” of Kano Metropolitan? Kano Studies, Special Issue: Youth & Health in Kano Today, 3, 85–112.

    Google Scholar 

  26. De Boeck, F. (2000). Borderland Breccia: The mutant hero in the historical imagination of a Central-African diamond frontier. Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History, 1(2), 44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Decker, S. H. (2002). Policing gangs and youth violence. Belmont: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Decker, S. H., & Weerman, F. W. (2005). European street gangs and troublesome youth groups. Walnut Creek: Altamira.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Decker, S. H., & Weerman, F. W. (2005). European street gangs and troublesome youth groups: Findings from the Eurogang research program. In S. H. Decker & F. M. Weerman (Eds.), European street gangs and troublesome youth groups (pp. 35–62). Walnut Creek: Altamira.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Dike, V. E. (2006). Democracy and political life in Nigeria. Bloomington: iUniverse.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Eneji, T. (1996, February 25). Death on the loose as secret cults take over campuses. Sunday Tribune. p. 19.

  32. Esbensen, F. A., & Huizinga, D. (1993). Gangs, drugs, and delinquency in a survey of urban youth. Criminology, 31, 565–589. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1993.tb01142.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Esbensen, F. A., & Tusinski, K. E. (2007). Youth gangs in the print media. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 14(1), 21–38.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Esbensen, F. A., Brick, B. T., Melde, C., Tusinski, K., & Taylor, T. J. (2008). The role of race and ethnicity in gang membership. In F. Van Gemert, D. Peterson & I. L. Lien (Eds.), Street gangs, migration and ethnicity (pp. 117–139). Devon: Willan.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Falola, T. (2000). Culture and customs of Nigeria. Westport: Greenwood.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Fearon, J. D., & Laitin, D. D. (2000). Violence and the social construction of ethnic identity. International Organization, 54(4), 845–877. doi:10.1162/002081800551398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Gifford, P. (1998). African Christianity: its public role. London: Hurst.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Glaser, C. (1998). Swines, hazels and the dirty dozen: Masculinity, territoriality and the youth gangs of Soweto, 1960–1976. Journal of Southern African Studies, 24(4), 719–736. doi:10.1080/03057079808708598.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Hagedorn, J. M. (2001). Gangs and the informal economy. In R. Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America III (pp. 101–120). Beverly Hills: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Hagedorn, J. M. (2005). The global impact of gangs. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 21(2), 153–169. doi:10.1177/1043986204273390.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Hagedorn, J. M. (2008). A world of gangs: armed young men and gangsta culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Hallsworth, S., & Young, T. (2008). Gang talk and gang talkers: A critique. Crime Media Culture, 4(2), 175–195. doi:10.1177/1741659008092327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Harnischfeger, J. (2003). The Bakassi Boys: Fighting crime in Nigeria. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 41, 23–49. doi:10.1017/S0022278X02004135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Hayden, T. (2004). Street wars: gangs and the future of violence. New York: New.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Hayward, A. (2008). Africa called: Scientists and development in Nigeria. Abingdon: Radcliffe.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Hazlehurst, K., & Hazlehurst, C. (1998). Gangs and youth subcultures: international explorations. New Brunswick: Transaction.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Hill, M. R., & Thomas, V. (2000). Strategies for racial identity development: Narratives of Black and White women in interracial partner relationships. Family Relations, 49(2), 193–201. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2000.00193.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Horowitz, R. (1984). Honor and the American dream: culture and identity in a Chicano community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Hunter, J. A., & Stringer, M. (1993). Social explanations and self-esteem in Northern Ireland. The Journal of Social Psychology, 13(5), 643–651.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Ikelegbe, A. (2006). The economy of conflict in the oil rich Niger Delta region of Nigeria. African and Asian Studies, 5(1), 10–23. doi:10.1163/156920906775768291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Ilika, A. I., Okonkwo, P. I., & Adogu, P. (2002). Intimate partner violence among women of childbearing age in a primary health care center in Nigeria. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 6(3), 53–58. doi:10.2307/3583257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Ilusanya, G. (2005). Cultism and violent behaviour in tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Zimbabwe Journal of Educational Research, 17(1).

  53. Ilusanya, G., & Oyebade, S. A. (2008). From public university dominance to private university policy initiatives in Nigeria: The push and pull factors. Higher Education Management & Policy, 20(2), 71–88.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Kamali, M. H. (2007). Sharīah and civil law: Towards a methodology of harmonization. Islamic Law & Society, 14(3), 391–420. doi:10.1163/156851907782792508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Kapferer, B. (1988). Legends of people/myths of state: violence, intolerance, and political culture in Sri Lanka and Australia. Washington: Smithsonian Institution.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Kaplan, H. B. (1975). Self-attitudes and deviant behavior. Pacific Palisades: Goodyear.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Katz, J., & Jackson-Jacobs, C. (2004). The criminologists’ gang. In C. Summer (Ed.), The Blackwell companion to criminology (pp. 91–124). Oxford: Blackwell.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  58. King, P., & Logan, T. (2004). Identity theft resource kit. Woodside: KnightsBridge Castle.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Klein, M. (1998). The American street gang. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Klein, M., Kerner, H. J., Maxsen, C. L., & Weitekamp, E. G. (2001). The Eurogang paradox: street gangs and youth groups in the U.S. and Europe. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Kontos, L., Brotherton, D., & Barrios, L. (2003). Gangs and society: alternative perspectives. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Kynoch, G. (2005). We are fighting the world: a history of the Marashea gangs in South Africa, 1947–1999. Columbus: Ohio University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  63. La Fontaine, J. (1970). Two types of youth groups in Kinshasa (Leopoldville). In P. Mayer (Ed.), Socialization: the approach from social anthropology (pp. 191–210). London: Tavistock.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Last, M. (2008). The search for security in Muslim Northern Nigeria. Africa, 78(1), 41–63. doi:10.3366/E0001972008000041.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Lien, I. L. (2001). The concept of honor, conflict, and violent behavior among youths in Oslo. In M. W. Klein, H. J. Kerner, C. L. Maxson & E. G. M. Weitekamp (Eds.), The Eurogang paradox: street gangs and youth groups in the U.S. and Europe (pp. 165–174). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Lipsey, M. W., & Derzon, J. H. (1998). Predictors of violent or serious delinquency in adolescence and early adulthood: A synthesis of longitudinal research. In R. Loeber & D. P. Farrington (Eds.), Serious and violent juvenile offenders: risk factors and successful interventions (pp. 86–105). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Lunde, P. (2006). Organized crime: an inside guide to the world’s most successful industry. London: DK ADULT.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Mallory, S. (2007). Understanding organized crime. Sudbury: Jones & Bartlett.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Mbembe, A. (2001). On the postcolony. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  70. McCauley, J., Kern, D. E., Kolodner, K., Dill, L., Schroeder, A. F., & DeChant, H. K. (1998). Relation of low-severity violence to women’s health. Annals of Internal Medicine, 13, 687–691.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Merton, R. K. (1968). Social theory and social structure. New York: Free.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Minassian, R. (2003). Gangs to jobs. Royersford: Alpha.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Monteith, M., & Winters, J. (2002). Why we hate. Psychology Today, 35(3), 44–65.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Moore, J. (1991). Going down to the Barrio. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Nast, H. J. (2005). Concubines and power: five hundred years in a Northern Nigerian palace. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Nigeria: Delta rebels threaten to attack oil wells (2004, September 24). New York Times. p. A8.

  77. Nigeria’s imperiled elections. (2007, April 11). New York Times. p. A21.

  78. Nnamdi. (2007). Poetry. Charleston: BookSurge.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Nolte, I. (2004). Identity and violence: The politics of youth in Ijebu-Remo, Nigeria. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 42(1), 61–89. doi:10.1017/S0022278X03004464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Obiezu, E. C. (2008). Towards a politics of compassion: Socio-political dimensions of Christian responses to suffering. Bloomington: AuthorHouse.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Ogunbameru, O. A. (1997). Readings in campus secret cult. Ile-Ife: Kuntel Publishing House.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Okulate, G. T. (2005). Interpersonal violence cases reported to the police: A Nigerian study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(12), 1598–1610. doi:10.1177/0886260505280348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Olugbile, S. (2005, August 17). Caging cultism via legislation. The Punch. p. 40.

  84. Omotunde, D. (1984, March 13). Religious fanaticism and cultism. National Concord. p. 15.

  85. Onojowo, D. (2001). Of hoodlums, North and South (p. A1). Lagos: Punch.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Polgreen, L. (2007, October 10). In Nigeria, ballots promise, but bullets rule. New York Times. p. A12.

  87. Polgreen, L. (2008, January 2). Gang blamed as 10 are killed in attacks at Nigerian oil port. New York Times. p. A5.

  88. Popoola, B. I., & Alao, K. A. (2006). Secret cults in Nigerian institutions of higher learning: Need for a radical intervention programme. Journal of School Violence, 5(2), 73–85. doi:10.1300/J202v05n02_06.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Pratten, D., & Sen, A. (2007). Global vigilantes. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Project alert. (2001). Project alert on violence against women. Ikeja, Lagos: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Puddifoot, J. E. (1997). Psychological reaction to perceived erasure of community boundaries. The Journal of Social Psychology, 137(3), 343–356.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Reding, A. (2002, June 9). Can Europe keep values despite its immigrants?. San Antonio Express-News. p. 1G.

  93. Rotimi, A. (2005). Violence in the citadel: The menace of secret cults in the Nigerian universities. Nordic Journal of African Studies, 14(1), 79–98.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Rustemli, A., Mertan, B., & Ciftci, O. (2000). In-group favoritism among native and immigrant Turkish Cypriots: Trait evaluations of in-group and out-group targets. The Journal of Social Psychology, 137(3), 343–356.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Rymes, B. (1996). Naming as social practice: The case of little creeper from Diamond Street. Language in Society, 25(2), 237–260. doi:10.1017/S0047404500020625.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Sachdev, I., & Bourhis, R. (1987). Status differentials and intergroup behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 17, 277–293. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420170304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Sánchez-Jankowski, M. (2003). Gangs and social change. Theoretical Criminology, 7(2), 191–216. doi:10.1177/1362480603007002413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  98. Short, J. F. (1997). Poverty, ethnicity, and violent crime. Boulder: Westview.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Smith, D. J. (2004). The Bakassi Boys: Vigilantism, violence and political imagination in Nigeria. Cultural Anthropology, 19(3), 429–455. doi:10.1525/can.2004.19.3.429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  100. Special investigation: Are “Muslim Boys” using profits of crime to fund terrorist attacks? (2005, August 14). The Independent. p. A1.

  101. Sullivan, J. P. (2006). Maras morphing: Revisiting third generation gangs. Global Crime, 7(3), 487–504. doi:10.1080/17440570601101623.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. Sullivan, J. P. (2008). Transnational gangs: The impact of third generation gangs in Central America. Air & Space Power Journal, 1, 1.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Suttles, G. (1968). The social order of the slum: Territoriality and ethnicity in the inner city. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Suzuki, S. (1998). In-group and out-group communication patterns in…. Communication Research, 25(2), 154–183. doi:10.1177/009365098025002002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  105. Syal, R., & Townsend, M. (2009, January 11). Islamists target teen crime gangs in London. The Observer. p. A1.

  106. Tajfel, H. (1974). Social identity and intergroup behavior. Social Sciences Information. Information Sur les Sciences Sociales, 13, 65–93. doi:10.1177/053901847401300204.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Tajfel, H. (1978). Differentiation between social groups. London: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories: studies in social psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Tajfel, H. (1982). Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology, 33, 1–39. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.33.020182.000245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Tertilt, H. (1996). Turkish power boys. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Thompson, T. (2005). Gangs: a journey into the heart of the British underworld. London: Hodder & Stoughton.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Thrasher, F. M. (1927). The gang: a study of 1313 gangs in Chicago. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Touraine, A. (1995). Critique of modernity. Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  114. Turner, J. C. (1999). Some current issues in research on social identity and self categorization theories. In N. Ellemers, R. Spears & B. Doosje (Eds.), Social identity (pp. 6–35). Malden: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  115. United Nations. (1993). General Assembly declaration on the elimination of violence against women. Proceedings of the 85th Plenary Meeting, UN, Geneva.

  116. Vanbeselaere, N. (2000). The treatment of relevant and irrelevant outgroups in minimal group situations with crossed categorizations. The Journal of Social Psychology, 140(4), 515–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  117. Van Gemert, F., & Decker, S. (2008). Migrant groups and gang activity: a contrast between Europe and the USA. In F. Van Gemert, D. Peterson & I. L. Lien (Eds.), Street gangs, migration and ethnicity (pp. 15–46). Devon: Willan.

    Google Scholar 

  118. Van Gemert, F., Peterson, D., & Lien, I. L. (2008). Street gangs, migration and ethnicity. Devon: Willan.

    Google Scholar 

  119. Vaughn, G. M. (1988). The psychology of intergroup discrimination. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 17, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  120. Vigil, J. D. (1988). Barrio gangs: street life and identity in Southern California. Austin: University of Texas Press.

    Google Scholar 

  121. Vigil, J. D. (1988). Group processes and street identity: Adolescent Chicano gang members. Ethos (Berkeley, Calif.), 16(4), 421–425. doi:10.1525/eth.1988.16.4.02a00040.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  122. Vigil, J. D. (1989). Chicano gangs: Group norms and individual factors related to adult criminality. Aztlan: A Journal of Chicano Studies, 18(2), 27–44.

    Google Scholar 

  123. Vigil, J. D. (1997). Personas Mexicanas: Chicano high schoolers in a changing Los Angeles. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace.

    Google Scholar 

  124. Violence by intimates: Analysis of data on crimes by current or former spouses, boyfriends and girlfriends (1998, March 17). Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice.

  125. Wang, A. Y. (1994). Pride and prejudice in high school gang members. Adolescence, 29(114), 279–292.

    Google Scholar 

  126. Warlords and state government. (2004). Africa confidential, 45(18), 1–3.

    Google Scholar 

  127. West, R., & Turner, L. H. (2000). Introducing communication theory. Mountain View: Mayfield.

    Google Scholar 

  128. Whyte, W. F. (1993). Street corner society: the social structure of an Italian slum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  129. Williams, L. (2008). Nigeria (2nd ed.). Bucks: Bradt Travel Guides.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jonathan Matusitz.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Matusitz, J., Repass, M. Gangs in Nigeria: an updated examination. Crime Law Soc Change 52, 495–511 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-009-9208-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-009-9208-y

Keywords

Navigation