Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Developmental Differences in Child and Adolescent Reasoning About Anxiety Sensations

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Cognitive Therapy and Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Background

The development of reasoning as to the potential negative consequences of emotional sensations is a critical aspect of emotion knowledge and central to cognitive risk for anxiety disorders. The purpose of this paper is to explore the reasoning children and adolescents give for negative interpretations of anxiety sensations, testing a priori hypotheses quantitatively and exploring the content of the reasons qualitatively.

Methods

This study used a cross sectional design with interviews as well as cognitive and emotional assessments in a sample of 227 youth aged 6–17 years. Coding schemes to assess the logical validity, affective valence, and qualitative reasons that youth give to evaluate anxiety sensations and anxiety situations were developed.

Results

Findings indicated diverse reasoning was used and responses could be reliably coded with developmental differences across age, cognitive, and verbal development. The logical sophistication of the reasoning used by youth increased across age in a non-linear manner and linearly with cognitive and verbal abilities. Child anxiety sensitivity and internalizing symptom levels moderated the main effect of age.

Conclusions

The results add to the existing understanding of emotional development and are consistent with the idea that the process of cognitive-emotional understanding is not a simple linear one because various domains may show differential development.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Black youth had lower logical validity ratings but were on average younger than white and Hispanic youth in the study sample. Importantly, when controlling for age no differences in logical validity or affective valence ratings emerged across ethnic/racial groups.

  2. We also saw similarity of findings with just the anxiety items of RCADS. We found relatively low internal consistency on the depression scale and so did not analyze depression separately. Total scale had high internal consistency at .93. Detailed output and data files are available from the first author.

  3. This effect was significant with the RCADS outlier removed as well with model R2 = 0.22, p < 0.001, interaction term t(205) = 2.26; β = 0.15, p = 0.025.

  4. The RCADS outlier was not in this analysis by virtue of the subsample.

  5. Details of the specific item coding scheme and the top 10 specific codes for each item are available upon request.

References

  • Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive theory and the emotional disorders. New York: International Universities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1985). Theoretical perspectives on clinical anxiety. In A. H. Tuma & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Anxiety and the anxiety disorders (pp. 183–196). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

  • Bender, P. K., Pons, F., Harris, P. L., Esbjørn, B. H., & Reinholdt-Dunne, M. L. (2015). Emotion understanding in clinically anxious children: A preliminary investigation. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1916. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01916.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, S. D. (1994). Origins and outcomes of individual differences in emotion regulation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2–3), 53–72.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chorpita, B. F., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (1999). Clinical assessment of anxiety sensitivity in children and adolescents: Where do we go from here? Psychological Assessment, 11(2), 212–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chorpita, B. F., Yim, L., Moffitt, C., Umemoto, L. A., & Francis, S. E. (2000). Assessment of symptoms of DSM-IV anxiety and depression in children: A revised child anxiety and depression scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(8), 835–855.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1997). PPVT-III: Peabody picture vocabulary test. Circle Pines: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (1994). Mothers’ reactions to children’s negative emotions: Relations to children’s temperament and anger behavior. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 1982-, 138–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., & Reiser, M. (2000). Dispositional emotionality and regulation: Their role in predicting quality of social functioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(1), 136–157.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, A. (1962). Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. Seacaucus, NJ: Citadel Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160.

  • Flavell, J. H., Green, F. L., & Flavell, E. R. (1993). Children’s understanding of the stream of consciousness. Child Development, 64(2), 387–398.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flavell, J. H., Green, F. L., Flavell, E. R., Harris, P. L., & Astington, J. W. (1995). Young children’s knowledge about thinking. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (p. 113). Hoboken: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Francis, S. E., Noël, V. A., & Ryan, S. L. (2019). A systematic review of the factor structure of anxiety sensitivity among children: Current status and recommendations for future directions. Child & Youth Care Forum. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-019-09502-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, P. L. (2006). Social cognition. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology, Sixth Ed.: Vol. II Cognition, Perception, and Language (4. Conceptual Understanding and Achievements). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

  • Harris, P. L., Johnson, C. N., Hutton, D., Andrews, G., & Cooke, T. (1989). Young children’s theory of mind and emotion. Cognition & Emotion, 3(4), 379–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayward, C., Killen, J. D., Kraemer, H. C., & Taylor, C. B. (2000). Predictors of panic attacks in adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(2), 207–214.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Izard, C. E. (1971). The face of emotion. East Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Izard, C., Fine, S., Schultz, D., Mostow, A., Ackerman, B., & Youngstrom, E. (2001). Emotion knowledge as a predictor of social behavior and academic competence in children at risk. Psychological Science, 12(1), 18–23.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mattis, S. G., & Ollendick, T. H. (1997). Children’s cognitive responses to the somatic symptoms of panic. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25(1), 47–57.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16(2), 361–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., & Luijten, M. (2002). The connection between cognitive development and specific fears and worries in normal children and children with below-average intellectual abilities: A preliminary study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(1), 37–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Vermeer, E., & Horselenberg, R. (2008). Cognitive development and the interpretation of anxiety-related physical symptoms in 4–13-year-old non-clinical children. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 39(1), 73–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piaget, J. (1950). The psychology of intelligence. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget’s theory. In W. Kessen (Ed.) Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 103–128). New York: Wiley.

  • Pons, F., De Rosnay, M., Bender, P. K., Doudin, P.-A., Harris, P. L., & Giménez-Dasí, M. (2014). The impact of abuse and learning difficulties on emotion understanding in late childhood and early adolescence. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 175(4), 301–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pons, F., & Harris, P. (2000). Test of emotion comprehension: TEC. Oxford: University of Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pons, F., & Harris, P. (2005). Longitudinal change and longitudinal stability of individual differences in children’s emotion understanding. Cognition & Emotion, 19(8), 1158–1174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pons, F., Lawson, J., Harris, P. L., & De Rosnay, M. (2003). Individual differences in children’s emotion understanding: Effects of age and language. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 44(4), 347–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reiss, S. (1991). Expectancy model of fear, anxiety, and panic. Clinical Psychology Review, 11(2), 141–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saldaña, J. (2013). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, N. B., Lerew, D. R., & Jackson, R. J. (1997). The role of anxiety sensitivity in the pathogenesis of panic: Prospective evaluation of spontaneous panic attacks during acute stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(3), 355–364.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, N. B., Lerew, D. R., & Jackson, R. J. (1999). Prospective evaluation of anxiety sensitivity in the pathogenesis of panic: Replication and extension. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108(3), 532–537.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, W. K., Fleisig, W., Rabian, B., & Peterson, R. A. (1991). Childhood anxiety sensitivity index. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 20(2), 162–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, W. K., Ginsburg, G. S., & Goedhart, A. W. (1999). Factor structure of the childhood anxiety sensitivity index. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37(9), 903–917.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Southam-Gerow, M. A., & Kendall, P. C. (2000). A preliminary study of the emotion understanding of youths referred for treatment of anxiety disorders. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(3), 319–327.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Southam-Gerow, M. A., & Kendall, P. C. (2002). Emotion regulation and understanding: Implications for child psychopathology and therapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 22(2), 189–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spence, S. H. (1997). The spence children’s anxiety scale (SCAS). Child Psychology Portfolio.

  • VERBI Software. (2017). MAXQDA 2018 [English]. Retrieved from https://www.maxqda.com.

  • Vernberg, E. M., La Greca, A. M., Silverman, W. K., & Prinstein, M. (1996). Predictors of children’s post-disaster functioning following Hurricane Andrew. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 237–248. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.105.2.237.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weems, C. F., Hammond-Laurence, K., Silverman, W. K., & Ferguson, C. (1997). The relation between anxiety sensitivity and depression in children and adolescents referred for anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(10), 961–966.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weems, C. F., Hammond-Laurence, K., Silverman, W. K., & Ginsburg, G. S. (1998). Testing the utility of the anxiety sensitivity construct in children and adolescents referred for anxiety disorders. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27(1), 69–77.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weems, C. F., Hayward, C., Killen, J., & Taylor, C. B. (2002). A longitudinal investigation of anxiety sensitivity in adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111(3), 471–477.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

The research reported here was funded by a grant from the National Institute of Mental Health (MH067572) awarded to Carl F. Weems. The authors would like to acknowledge Melinda Cannon, Natalie Costa, Savannah Oswald, and Leslie Taylor for their help with the data collection and coding done for this project. USA National Institute of Mental Health Grant.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Human Development and Family Studies, Iowa State University, 4380 Palmer, Ames, IA, 50011, USA

    Carl F. Weems, Randie D. Camp & Erin L. Neill

  2. Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA

    Brandon G. Scott

Authors
  1. Carl F. Weems
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Randie D. Camp
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Erin L. Neill
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Brandon G. Scott
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Carl F. Weems.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

Carl F. Weems, Randie D. Camp, Erin L. Neill and Brandon G. Scott declare no conflicts of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee (IRB Approval Number “03Mar11”) and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from the caregiver and informed assent was obtained from the child.

Animal Rights

This article does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors.

Additional information

This paper is dedicated to memory and incredible life of our co-author Dr. Randie Camp PhD who died unexpectedly in August 2020.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Weems, C.F., Camp, R.D., Neill, E.L. et al. Developmental Differences in Child and Adolescent Reasoning About Anxiety Sensations. Cogn Ther Res 45, 166–178 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-020-10182-5

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-020-10182-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation