The Relationship Between Parenting and Anxiety in Emerging Adulthood

Abstract

Challenging parenting behavior (CPB) encompasses parental encouragement of children to push their own limits and take safe risks. Increased CPB has been associated with reduced anxiety scores in young children. This study sought to develop and evaluate a measure of CPB relevant to emerging adults (CPBQ-EA), and examine the relationship between anxiety and parenting behaviors, including; CPB, overprotection, rejection, and warmth. A sample of 442 18–25 year-olds completed self-report measures of anxiety and parenting. Exploratory factor analysis revealed three CPB domains; social, novelty, and competition. Greater social CPB was associated with lower social anxiety scores in emerging adults, but only when exhibited by fathers. Greater rejection exhibited by both parents was associated with higher emerging adult general anxiety and stress scores. These findings highlight the connection between paternal CPB and offspring social anxiety symptoms, the salience of parental rejection in emerging adult anxiety, and the importance of including fathers in parenting studies.

Appendices

Appendix 1: DRAFT CPBQ-EA Questionnaire Items

• 1. My mother/father plays jokes on me*.

• 2. My mother/father encourages me to speak my mind and back myself.

• 3. My mother/father encourages me not to take myself too seriously.

• 4. My mother/father teases me playfully. For example, reminding me of silly things I used to do as a child*.

• 5. My mother/father promotes the importance of being socially assertive and standing up for myself*.

• 6. If I’m playing sport with my mother/father, they try to win*.

• 7. When I find something challenging, my mother/father encourages me to persevere and face my fears. For example, speaking in public or moving to another city.

• 8. My mother/father will jokingly push me into the pool or trip me up*.

• 9. My mother/father encourages me to do my best.

• 10. My parent challenges me by engaging in intellectual conversation.

• 11. My mother/father provides me with more guidance and direction than I believe I need.

• 12. My mother/father encourages me to undertake new things, such as going on holidays a lone or having a part time job*.

• 13. My mother/father challenges my opinions about people, social issues and political views.

• 14. My mother/father almost never plays boisterously (lively/excitedly) with me*.

• 15. My mother/father encourages me to undertake hobbies or activities where I will meet new people*.

• 16. My mother/father makes my appointments for me, such as a dental check-up.

• 17. My mother/father encourages me to take initiative in social contexts. For example, organise a party*.

• 18. My mother/father encourages me to stick up for myself if others try to take advantage of me*.

• 19. My mother/father tries to beat me at sports.

• 20. My mother/father encourages me to stand up for my opinion and beliefs*.

• 21. My mother/father reminds me not to be too sensitive.

• 22. My mother/father encourages acts of leadership and independence, such as stepping up in the workplace.

• 23. My mother/father encourages me to say no to my friends if I don’t want something, such as a drink*.

• 24. My mother/father encourages me to be independent and self-sufficient, for example, financially.

• 25. My mother/father encourages me to talk to new people and pursue new interests.

• 26. My mother/father challenges me to competitive games like cards, soccer or running race.

• 27. My mother/father encourages me to excel*.

• 28. If I’m playing a game with my mother/father, they let me win*.

• 29. My mother/father tells me to be my own person.

• 30. My mother/father encourages me to try new things, such as travelling alone or considering a new career.

• 31. My mother/father takes it upon himself/herself to find opportunities for me.

• 32. My mother/father makes it clear to me that it’s important to ‘fit in’ with my friends*.

• 33. My mother/father would never pull a funny prank on me.

• 34. My mother/father challenges me to physical contests (for example play fighting, running, tennis, arm wrestling)*.

• 35. My mother/father encourages me to keep active, healthy and fit.

• 36. I play rough contact sports with my mother/father.

* = item retained from adolescent version.

Items 11, 14, 16, 28, 31, 32, 33 are reverse coded.

Appendix 2: Final CPBQ-EA Item List

Challenging Parenting Behaviour Questionnaire—Emerging Adults (Father Version)

The statements below concern how your father interacts with you. Please circle a number to indicate the degree to which each statement applies to you. If you do not know precisely, circle the number that you think comes the closest. Please respond to all the statements.

1	2	3	4	5
Not applicable	Somewhat applicable	Sometimes applicable and sometimes not applicable	Usually applicable	Completely applicable

• 1. My father encourages me to speak my mind and back myself.

• 2. My father promotes the importance of being socially assertive and standing up for myself.

• 3. If I’m playing sport with my father, he tries to win.

• 4. My father encourages me to do my best.

• 5. My father challenges me by engaging in intellectual conversation.

• 6. My father encourages me to undertake new things, such as going on holiday alone or having a part time job.

• 7. My father encourages me to undertake hobbies or activities where I will meet new people.

• 8. My father encourages me to take initiative in social contexts. For example, organising a party.

• 9. My father encourages me to stick up for myself if others try to take advantage of me.

• 10. My father tries to beat me at sports.

• 11. My father encourages me to stand up for my opinion and beliefs.

• 12. My father encourages acts of leadership and independence, such as stepping up in the workplace.

• 13. My father encourages me to talk to new people and pursue new interests.

• 14. My father challenges me to competitive games like cards, soccer or running races.

• 15. My father encourages me to excel.

• 16. My father tells me to be my own person.

• 17. My father encourages me to try new things, such as travelling alone or considering a new career.

• 18. My father challenges me to physical contests (for example play fighting, running, tennis, arm wrestling).

• 19. My father encourages me to keep active, healthy and fit.

• 20. I play rough contact sports with my father.

Scoring:

Social subscale items: 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 19.

Competition subscale items: 3, 10, 14, 18, 20.

Novelty subscale items: 6, 7, 8, 13, 17.

Scores are summed separately for each subscale, with higher scores denoting more challenging parenting in that domain.

Challenging Parenting Behaviour Questionnaire—Emerging Adults (Mother Version)

The statements below concern how your mother interacts with you. Please circle a number to indicate the degree to which each statement applies to you. If you do not know precisely, circle the number that you think comes the closest. Please respond to all the statements.

1	2	3	4	5
Not applicable	Somewhat applicable	Sometimes applicable and sometimes not applicable	Usually applicable	Completely applicable

• 1. My mother encourages me to speak my mind and back myself.

• 2. My mother promotes the importance of being socially assertive and standing up for myself.

• 3. If I’m playing sport with my mother, she tries to win.

• 4. My mother encourages me to do my best.

• 5. My mother challenges me by engaging in intellectual conversation.

• 6. My mother encourages me to undertake new things, such as going on holiday alone or having a part time job.

• 7. My mother encourages me to undertake hobbies or activities where I will meet new people.

• 8. My mother encourages me to take initiative in social contexts. For example, organising a party.

• 9. My mother encourages me to stick up for myself if others try to take advantage of me.

• 10. My mother tries to beat me at sports.

• 11. My mother encourages me to stand up for my opinion and beliefs.

• 12. My mother encourages acts of leadership and independence, such as stepping up in the workplace.

• 13. My mother encourages me to talk to new people and pursue new interests.

• 14. My mother challenges me to competitive games like cards, soccer or running races.

• 15. My mother encourages me to excel.

• 16. My mother tells me to be my own person.

• 17. My mother encourages me to try new things, such as travelling alone or considering a new career.

• 18. My mother challenges me to physical contests (for example play fighting, running, tennis, arm wrestling).

• 19. My mother encourages me to keep active, healthy and fit.

• 20. I play rough contact sports with my mother.

Scoring:

Social subscale items: 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 19.

Competition subscale items: 3, 10, 14, 18, 20.

Novelty subscale items: 6, 7, 8, 13, 17.

Scores are summed separately for each subscale, with higher scores denoting more challenging parenting in that domain.