Skip to main content

Mental Contrasting with Implementation Intentions Increases Goal-Attainment in Individuals with Mild to Moderate Depression

Cognitive Therapy and Research volume 40, pages 557–564 (2016)Cite this article

Abstract

Depression is associated with difficulties initiating and performing goal-directed behavior. In healthy participants, the self-regulation strategy of mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII) has been demonstrated to facilitate goal-directed behavior. We investigated whether people with depression benefit from using MCII in attaining their goals and whether MCII attenuates symptoms of depression. Forty-seven participants with depression were randomly assigned to a MCII-condition or a waiting-control-condition. Participants in the MCII-condition performed MCII on one depression-relevant goal (e.g. social/physical activities). Goal-attainment, changes in depression, and in self-efficacy expectations after 3 weeks were measured. Significantly more participants in the MCII-condition (78.6 %) than in the waiting-control-condition (31.6 %) attained their goal. We found no significant between-group effects on depression or self-efficacy, but there was a medium pre-to-post reduction in depression in the MCII-condition and only a small effect in the control-condition. MCII is a useful strategy to facilitate goal-pursuit in depression and may be a useful adjunct to interventions aimed at behavioral activation.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

References

  • Adriaanse, M. A., Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M., Hennes, E. P., de Ridder, D. T. D., & de Wit, J. B. F. (2010). When planning is not enough: Fighting unhealthy snacking habits by mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII). European Journal of Social Psychology, 40(7), 1277–1293. doi:10.1002/ejsp.730.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arbour, K. P., & Martin Ginis, K. A. (2009). A randomised controlled trial of the effects of implementation intentions on women’s walking behaviour. Psychology & Health, 24(1), 49–65. doi:10.1080/08870440801930312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bayer, U. C., Achtziger, A., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2009). Responding to subliminal cues: do if-then plans facilitate action preparation and initiation without conscious intent? Social Cognition, 27(2), 183–201. doi:10.1521/soco.2009.27.2.183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., & Alford, B. A. (2008). Depression: Causes and treatment (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell-Dolan, D. J., Reaven, N. M., & Peterson, L. (1993). Depression and social functioning: A multidimensional study of the linkages. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22(3), 306–315. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2203_1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camacho, T. C., Roberts, R. E., Lazarus, N. B., Kaplan, G. A., & Cohen, R. D. (1991). Physical activity and depression: evidence from the Alameda County Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 134(2), 220–31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1862805. Accessed 5 Feb 2013.

  • Christiansen, S., Oettingen, G., Dahme, B., & Klinger, R. (2010). A short goal-pursuit intervention to improve physical capacity: a randomized clinical trial in chronic back pain patients. Pain, 149(3), 444–452. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2009.12.015.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cuijpers, P., van Straten, A., & Warmerdam, L. (2007). Behavioral activation treatments of depression: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(3), 318–326. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.11.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • D’Zurilla, T. J., & Goldfried, M. R. (1971). Problem solving and behavior modification. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 78(1), 107–126. doi:10.1037/h0031360.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M. (2014). Weakness of the will: Is a quick fix possible? Motivation and Emotion, 38(3), 305–322. doi:10.1007/s11031-014-9416-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Implementation intentions and goal-attainment: A meta-analysis of effects and processes. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 69–119. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(06)38002-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hautzinger, M., Keller, F., & Kühner, C. (2009). Beck depressions-inventar: BDI II (2nd ed.). Frankfurt am Main: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hopko, D. R., Lejuez, C. W., LePage, J. P., Hopko, S., & McNeil, D. W. (2001). A brief behavioral activation treatment for depression. A randomized pilot trial within an inpatient psychiatric hospital. Behavioral Modification, 27(4), 458–469. doi:10.1177/0145445503255489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hopko, D. R., Lejuez, C. W., Ruggiero, K. J., & Eifert, G. H. (2003). Contemporary behavioral activation treatments for depression: Procedures, principles, and progress. Clinical Psychology Review, 23(5), 699–717. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(03)00070-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johannessen, K. B., Oettingen, G., & Mayer, D. (2012). Mental contrasting of a dieting wish improves self-reported health behaviour. Psychology & Health, 27(sup2), 43–58. doi:10.1080/08870446.2011.626038.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, S. L., Carver, C. S., & Fulford, D. (2010). Goal dysregulation in the affective disorders. In A. M. Kring, & D. M. Sloan (Eds.), Emotion regulation and psychopathology: A transdiagnostic approach to etiology and treatment (pp. 204–228). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappes, A., & Oettingen, G. (2014). The emergence of goal pursuit: Mental contrasting connects future and reality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 54, 25–39. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.03.014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kappes, A., Singmann, H., & Oettingen, G. (2012). Mental contrasting instigates goal pursuit by linking obstacles of reality with instrumental behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(4), 811–818. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kappes, A., Wendt, M., Reinelt, T., & Oettingen, G. (2013). Mental contrasting changes the meaning of reality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(5), 797–810. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.03.010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirk, D., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2013). Promoting integrative bargaining: Mental contrasting with implementation intentions. International Journal of Conflict Management, 24(2), 148–165. doi:10.1108/10444061311316771.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lejuez, C. W., Hopko, D. R., Acierno, R., Daughters, S. B., & Pagoto, S. L. (2011). Ten year revision of the brief behavioral activation treatment for depression: Revised treatment manual. Behavioral Modification, 35(2), 111–161. doi:10.1177/0145445510390929.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., & Graf, M. (1973). Pleasant activities and depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 41(2), 261–268. doi:10.1037/h0035142.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., & Libet, J. (1972). Pleasant events, activity schedules, and depressions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 79(3), 291–295. doi:10.1037/h0033207.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Sullivan, J. M., & Grosscup, S. J. (1980). Changing reinforcing events: An approach to the treatment of depression. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 17(3), 322–334. doi:10.1037/h0085929.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maciejewski, P. K., Prigerson, H. G., & Mazure, C. M. (2000). Self-efficacy as a mediator between stressful life events and depressive symptoms: Differences based on history of prior depression. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 176(4), 373–378. doi:10.1192/bjp.176.4.373.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marquardt, M., Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M., Sheeran, P., & Liepert, J. (in prepartion). Mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII) improves physical activity and weight loss among stroke survivors over one year.

  • Martell, C. R., Dimidjian, S., & Herman-Dunn, R. (2010). Behavioral activation for depression: A clinician’s guide. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(3), 504–511. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.109.3.504.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G. (2000). Expectancy effects on behavior depend on self-regulatory thought. Social Cognition, 18(2), 101–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G. (2012). Future thought and behaviour change. European Review of Social Psychology, 23(1), 1–63. doi:10.1080/10463283.2011.643698.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G. (2014). Rethinking positive thinking: Inside the new science of motivation. New York: Penguin Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2010). Strategies of setting implementation goals. Mental contrasting and implementation intention. In J. E. Maddux & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Social psychological foundation of clinical psychology (pp. 115–144). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paffenbarger, R. S., Lee, I.-M., & Leung, R. (1994). Physical activity and personal characteristics associated with depression and suicide in American college men. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 89(s377), 16–22. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1994.tb05796.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Penedo, F. J., & Dahn, J. R. (2005). Exercise and well-being: a review of mental and physical health benefits associated with physical activity. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 18(2), 189–193. doi:10.1097/00001504-200503000-00013.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzer, R., Bäßler, J., Kwiatek, P., Schröder, K., & Zhang, J. X. (1997). The assessment of optimistic self-beliefs: Comparison of the German, Spanish, and Chinese versions of the General Self-Efficacy Scale. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 69–88. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01096.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). The generalized self-efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston (Eds.), Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp. 35–37). Windsor: Nfer-Nelson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Segrin, C. (2000). Social skills deficits associated with depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(3), 379–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheeran, P., Aubrey, R., & Kellett, S. (2007). Increasing attendance for psychotherapy: implementation intentions and the self-regulation of attendance-related negative affect. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(6), 853–863. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.75.6.853.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheeran, P., Harris, P., Vaughan, J., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2013). Gone exercising: Mental contrasting promotes physical activity among overweight, middle-aged, low-SES fishermen. Health Psychology, 32(7), 802–809. doi:10.1037/a0029293.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stadler, G., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2009). Physical activity in women: effects of a self-regulation intervention. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 36(1), 29–34. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2008.09.021.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., & Pham, L. B. (1996). Mental Simulation, motivation, and action. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 219–235). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teychenne, M., Ball, K., & Salmon, J. (2008). Physical activity and likelihood of depression in adults: A review. Preventive Medicine, 46(5), 397–411. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.01.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wittchen, H.-U., Zaudig, M., & Fydrich, T. (1997). SKID Strukturiertes Klinisches Interview für DSM-IV Achse I und II Handanweisung. Göttingen: Hogrefe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Youngren, M. A., & Lewinsohn, P. M. (1980). The functional relation between depression and problematic interpersonal behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 89(3), 333–341. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.89.3.333.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank all participants who took part in our study.

Author information

Author notes

    Authors and Affiliations

    1. Institute of Psychology, University of Hamburg, Von-Melle-Park 5, 20146, Hamburg, Germany

      Anja Fritzsche, Björn Schlier, Gabriele Oettingen & Tania M. Lincoln

    2. Psychology Department, New York University, 6 Washington Place, New York, NY, 10003, USA

      Gabriele Oettingen

    Authors
    1. Anja Fritzsche
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    2. Björn Schlier
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    3. Gabriele Oettingen
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    4. Tania M. Lincoln
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    Corresponding author

    Correspondence to Björn Schlier.

    Ethics declarations

    Conflict of Interest

    Anja Fritzsche, Björn Schlier, Gabriele Oettingen, and Tania Lincoln declare that they have no conflict of interest.

    Ethical Approval

    All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the national research committee (approved by the ethical review committee of the Psychotherapeutenkammer Hamburg.) and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

    Informed Consent

    Informed consent was obtained from all individual subjects participating in the study.

    Animal Rights

    No animal studies were carried out by the authors for this article.

    Additional information

    Anja Fritzsche and Björn Schlier have contributed equally to this article.

    Rights and permissions

    Reprints and Permissions

    About this article

    Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

    Cite this article

    Fritzsche, A., Schlier, B., Oettingen, G. et al. Mental Contrasting with Implementation Intentions Increases Goal-Attainment in Individuals with Mild to Moderate Depression. Cogn Ther Res 40, 557–564 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-015-9749-6

    Download citation

    • Published:

    • Issue Date:

    • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-015-9749-6

    Keywords

    • Depression
    • Self-regulation
    • Activity-related goals
    • Mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII)