Skip to main content

Infrastructuring and Participatory Design: Exploring Infrastructural Inversion as Analytic, Empirical and Generative

Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) volume 29, pages 115–151 (2020)Cite this article

Abstract

The participatory design of CSCW systems increasingly embraces activities of reconfiguring the use of existing interconnected systems in addition to developing and implementing new. In this article, we refer to such activities of changing and improving collaboration through the means of existing information infrastructures as infrastructuring. We investigate a relational perspective on infrastructuring and provide an overview and a detailed account of a local infrastructuring process by tracing the concrete relations that emerged. The elusive quality of information infrastructures as being invisible is analyzed through the notion of infrastructural inversion. Infrastructural inversion is the gestalt switch of shifting attention from the activities invisibly supported by an infrastructure to the activities that enable the infrastructure to function and meet desired needs for collaborative support. Initially, infrastructural inversion was conceived as a conceptual-analytic notion, but recent research has also positioned it as an empirical-ethnographic and generative-designerly resource. In this study, we rely on all of these stances and contribute to the generative-designerly position. We explain the notion of infrastructural inversion and describe how it is distinct from the CSCW concept of articulation work. The context of the analysis includes a participatory design project that sought to reduce patients’ fasting time prior to surgical operations by improving the interdepartmental coordination at a hospital. The project revealed the webs of relations and interdependencies in which fasting time is inscribed at the local level as well as regionally, nationally, and beyond. We pursue the relations, trace their connectedness across multiple scopes, and show how the process alternated between empirical and analytic activities of exploring relations and design-oriented activities of reaching closure. Our analysis shows that the notion of infrastructural inversion can enrich participatory design: Infrastructural inversion embraces the exploratory activities of tracing relations, while the design agenda drove the need for reaching closure. We conclude by discussing lessons learned for infrastructuring and for participatory design that engages with infrastructuring.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6

References

  • Aanestad, Margunn Anne Merete Driveklepp, Hilde Sørli, and Morten Hertzum (2017). Participatory continuing design: “Living with” videoconferencing in rehabilitation. In A.M. Kanstrup; A. Bygholm; P. Bertelsen; and C. Nøhr (eds), Participatory design and health information technology, IOS Press, Amsterdam, pp. 45–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agid, Shana (2016). “...It’s your project, but It’s not necessarily your work...”: Infrastructuring, Situatedness, and designing relational practice. In Bossen, C., R.C. Smith; A.M. Kanstrup; J. McDonnell; M. Teli; and K. Bødker (eds): Proceedings of the 14th participatory design conference: Full papers - Volume 1, New York: ACM, pp. 81–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Society of Anesthesiologists (2011). Practice guidelines for preoperative fasting and the use of pharmacologic agents to reduce the risk of pulmonary aspiration: Application to healthy patients undergoing elective procedures. Anesthesiology, vol. 114, no. 3, pp. 495–511.

    Google Scholar 

  • Appadurai, Arjun (2014). Foreword. In S. Graham and C. McFarlane (eds): Infrastructural lives: Urban infrastructure in context. Oxford: Routledge, pp. xii-xiii.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bannon, Liam J.; and Pelle Ehn (2013). Design: Design matters in participatory design. In J. Simonsen and T. Robertson (eds), Routledge international handbook of participatory design (pp. 37–63). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berg, Marc (1999). Accumulating and coordinating: Occasions for information Technologies in Medical Work. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 373–401.

    MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Bjögvinsson, Erling; Pelle Ehn; and Per-Anders Hillgren (2012). Design things and design thinking: Contemporary participatory design challenges. Design Issues, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 101–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Björgvinsson, Erling; Pelle Ehn; and Per-Anders Hillgren (2010) Participatory design and ‘democratizing innovation’, Proceedings of the 11th biennial Participatory Design Conference, PDC 2010, Sydney, Australia, November 29 – December 3, 2010, New York: ACM, pp. 41–50.

  • Blomberg, Jeanette; and Helena Karasti (2013). Reflections on 25 years of ethnography in CSCW. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, vol. 22, no. 4–6, pp. 373–423.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bødker, Keld; Finn Kensing; and Jesper Simonsen, (2004). Participatory IT design. Designing for business and workplace realities. Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bødker, Susanne; Christian Dindler and Ole Sejer Iversen (2017). Tying knots: Participatory Infrastructuring at work. Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), vol. 26, no. 1–2, pp. 245–273.

  • Bossen, Claus; and Randi Markussen (2010). Infrastructuring and ordering devices in health care: Medication plans and practices on a hospital ward. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 615–637.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botero, Andrea; Helena Karasti; Joanna Saad-Sulonen; Hanne Cecilie Geirbo; Karen S. Baker; Elena Parmiggiani; and Sanna Marttila (eds) (2019) Drawing together: Infrastructuring and politics for participatory design - a visual collection of cases, issues, questions, and relevant literature. University of Oulu, INTERACT Research Unit, INTERACT Series, no. 1.

  • Bowker, Geoffrey C. (1994). Science on the run: Information management and industrial geophysics at Schlumberger, 1920–1940. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowker, Geoffrey C.; and Susan L. Star (1999). Sorting things out: Classification and its consequences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandt, Eva; Thomas Binder; and Elizabeth Sanders. (2013). Tools and techniques: Ways to engage telling, making and enacting. In J. Simonsen; and T. Robertson (eds), Routledge international handbook of participatory design (pp. 145–181). New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, Adele E.; and Susan L. Star (2008). The social world framework: A theory/methods package. In E. J. Hackett, O. Amsterdamska, M. Lynch; and J. Wajcman (eds): The handbook of science and technology studies. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 113–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clement, Andrew; Brenda McPhail; Karen L. Smith; and Joseph Ferenbok (2012). Probing, mocking and prototyping: Participatory approaches to identity infrastructuring. In PDC2012: Proceedings of the 12th participatory design conference. New York: ACM Press, pp. 21–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagiral, Éric; and Ashveen Peerbaye (2016). Making knowledge in boundary infrastructures: Inside and beyond a database for rare diseases. Science and Technology Studies, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 44–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, Paul (2010). A vast machine: Computer models, climate data, and the politics of global warming. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, Paul N.; Steven J. Jackson; Geoffrey C. Bowker; and Cory P. Knobel (2007). Understanding infrastructure: Dynamics, tensions, and design. Final report of the workshop History and Theory of Infrastructure: Lessons for New Scientific Cyberinfrastructures. NSF, Office of Cyberinfrastructure. http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/49353. Accessed 6 Jul 2019.

  • Ehn, Pelle (2008) Participation in design things. Proceedings of the 10th biennial Anniversary Conference on Participatory Design, PDC 2008, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, October 1–5, 2008s, New York, NY: ACM, pp. 92–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerson, Elihu M.; and Susan Leigh Star (1986): Analyzing due process in the workplace. ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 257–270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, Penelope; Casper Bruun Jensen; and Atsuro Morita (eds) (2017). Infrastructures and social complexity. A companion. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heidegger, Martin (1962/1927). Being and time (J. Macquarrie and E. Robinson, Trans.). New York: Harper.

  • Henderson, Austin; and Morten Kyng (1991) There’s no place like home: Continuing Design in use. In Greenbaum, J. and M. Kyng (eds) Design at work: Cooperative Design of Computer Systems. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hills- dale, pp. 219–240.

  • Hertzum, Morten; and Jesper Simonsen (2011). Effects-driven IT development: Specifying, realizing, and assessing usage effects. Scandinavian Journal of Information Systems, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 3–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hertzum, Morten; and Jesper Simonsen (2015). Visual overview, oral detail: The use of an emergency-department whiteboard. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, vol. 82, pp. 21–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hertzum, Morten; and Jesper Simonsen (2016). Effects of electronic emergency-department whiteboards on clinicians' time distribution and mental workload. Health Informatics Journal, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 3–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hertzum, Morten; and Jesper Simonsen (2019). Configuring information systems and work practices for each other: What competences are needed locally. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, vol. 122, pp. 242–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hillgren, Per-Anders; Anna Seravalli; and Anders Emilson (2010). Prototyping and infrastructuring in design for social innovation. CoDesign, vol. 7, no. 3–4, pp. 169–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hine, Christine (2009). How can qualitative internet researcher define the boundaries of their projects? In Annette N. Markham; and Nancy K. Baym (eds): Internet inquiry: Conversations about method. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, Casper Bruun (2014). Continuous variations: The conceptual and the empirical in STS. Science. Technology and Human Values, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 192–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, Casper Bruun; and Britt Ross Winthereik (2013). Monitoring movements in development aid: Recursive partnerships and infrastructures. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaltenbrunner, Wolfgang (2015). Infrastructural inversion as a generative resource in digital scholarship. Science as Culture, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 1–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karasti, Helena (2014). Infrastructuring in participatory design. In PDC'14: Proceedings of the 13th conference on participatory design. New York: ACM Press, pp. 141–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karasti, Helena; and Karen S. Baker (2004) Infrastructuring for the Long-Term: Ecological Information Management. Proceedings of the 37th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS’37), Big Island, HI, USA, 5–8 Jan. 2004, IEEE, p. 10.

  • Karasti, Helena; and Jeanette Blomberg (2018). Studying Infrastructuring ethnographically. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 233–265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karasti, Helena and Anna-Liisa Syrjänen (2004) Artful infrastructuring in two cases of community PD. Proceedings of the 8th biennial Participatory Design Conference, PDC 2004, Toronto, Canada, July 27-31, 2004, vol. 1, New York, NY: ACM, pp. 20–30.

  • Karasti, Helena; Karen S. Baker and Florence Millerand (2010): Infrastructure time. Long-term matters in collaborative development, Computer Supported Cooperative Work, vol. 19, no. 3–4, pp. 377–415.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karasti, Helena; Volkmar Pipek; and Geoffrey C. Bowker (2018) An afterword to 'Infrastructuring and collaborative Design'. Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW): The Journal of Collaborative Computing and Work Practices, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 267–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kensing, Finn; and Jeanette Blomberg (1998). Participatory design: Issues and concerns. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 7(3–4), pp. 167–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kensing, Finn; and Andreas Munk-Madsen (1993). PD: Structure in the toolbox. Communications of the ACM, vol. 36, no. 6, pp. 78–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Korn, Matthias; and Amy Voida (2015). Creating friction: Infrastructuring civic engagement in everyday life. In Proceedings of the 5th decennial Aarhus conference: Critical alternatives. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, pp. 145–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lambert, Eva; and Sharon Carey (2015). Practice guideline recommendations on perioperative fasting: A systematic review. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition.

  • Larkin, Brian (2013). The politics and poetics of infrastructure. Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 42, pp. 327–343.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lassen, Jens V.; and Jesper Simonsen (2014). User-driven designs in medical informatics: Developing and implementing support for inter-departmental coordination of hospital work using electronic whiteboards. In J. Molka-Nielsen; and J. Pries-Heje (eds): Selected papers of the information systems research seminar in Scandinavia, IRIS 37: Association for Information Systems, AIS Electronic Library (AISeL).

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Dantec, Christopher A.; and Carl DiSalvo (2013.) Infrastructuring and the formation of publics in participatory design. Social Studies of Science, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 241–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maltby, J. Roger (2006). Fasting from midnight - the history behind the dogma. Best Practice and Research: Clinical Anaesthesiology, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 363–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marres, Noortje; Michael Guggenheim; and Alex Wilkie (2018) Inventing the social. Mattering Press, Manchester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayernik, Matthew S.; Jillian C. Wallis; and Christine L. Borgman (2013). Unearthing the infrastructure: Humans and sensors in field-based scientific research. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 65–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Michael, Mike (2012). What are we busy doing?: Engaging the idiot. Science, Technology and Human Values, vol. 37, no. 5, pp. 528–554.

  • Monteiro, Eric; Neil Pollock; Ole Hanseth; and Robin Williams (2013). From artefacts to infrastructures. Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW): The Journal of Collaborative Computing and Work Practices, vol. 22, No. 4–6, pp. 575–607.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nardi, Bonnie A.; and Yrjö Engeström (1999). A web on the wind: The structure of invisible work. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, vol. 8, no. 1–2, pp. 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, Laura J.; and Susan L. Star (1996). Making infrastructure: The dream of a common language. In PDC1996: Proceedings of the fourth biennial participatory design conference. Palo Alto, CA: Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility, pp. 231–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nygren, Jonas (2006). The metabolic effects of fasting and surgery. Best Practice and Research: Clinical Anaesthesiology, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 429–438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parmiggiani, Elena (2015). Integration by infrastructuring: The case of subsea environmental monitoring in oil and gas offshore operations (doctoral dissertation). Trondheim, Norway: NTNU Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parmiggiani, Elena; and Eric Monteiro (2016). A measure of ‘environmental happiness’: Infrastructuring environmental risk in oil and gas off shore operations. Science and Technology Studies, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 30–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parmiggiani, Elena; Eric Monteiro; and Vidar Hepsø (2015). The digital coral: Infrastructuring environmental monitoring. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 423–460.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pihkala, Suvi (2018). Touchable Matters. Reconfiguring the practices of sustainable change through responseable engagements. Doctoral dissertation, University of Oulu Graduate School; University of Oulu, Faculty of Education, Finland.

  • Pimenta, Gunther Peres; and José Eduardo de Aguilar-Nascimento (2014). Prolonged preoperative fasting in elective surgical patients: Why should we reduce it? Nutrition in Clinical Practice, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 22–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pipek, Volkmar; and Volker Wulf (2009). Infrastructuring: Toward an integrated perspective on the design and use of information technology. Journal of the Association for Information Systems, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 447–473.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pipek, Volkmar; Helena Karasti; and Geoffrey C. Bowker (2017). A Preface to ‘Infrastructuring and Collaborative Design.’ Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), vol. 26, no. 1–2, pp. 1–5.

  • Rasmussen, Rasmus; Benedicte Fleron; Morten Hertzum; and Jesper Simonsen (2010). Balancing tradition and transcendence in the implementation of emergency-department electronic whiteboards. In J. Molka-Danielsen, H. W. Nicolaisen; and J. S. Persson (eds): Selected papers of the information systems research seminar in Scandinavia 2010. Trondheim, NO: Tapir Academic Press, pp. 73–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ribes, David; and Charlotte P. Lee (2010). Sociotechnical studies of cyberinfrastructure and e-research: Current themes and future trajectories. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, vol. 19, no. 3–4, pp. 231–244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, Kjeld (2000). The critical role of workplace studies in CSCW. In P. Luff, J. Hindmarsh and C. Heath (eds): Workplace studies: Recovering work practice and informing design. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 141–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, Kjeld and Liam Bannon. (1992). Taking CSCW seriously: Supporting articulation work. Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW): An International Journal, vol. 1, no. 1–2, pp. 7–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, Kjeld; and Carla Simone (1996). Coordination mechanisms: Towards a Conceptual Foundation of CSCW systems design. Computer Supported Cooperative Work: The Journal of Collaborative Computing, vol. 5, no 2–3, pp. 155–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon, Herbert A. (1981). The sciences of the artificial (Second ed.). The Murray Printing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simonsen, Jesper; and Morten Hertzum (2012). Sustained participatory design: Extending the iterative approach. Design Issues, 28(3), pp. 10–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simonsen, Jesper; Jørgen Ole Bærenholdt; John Damm Scheuer; and Monika Büscher (2010). Synergies. In J. Simonsen; J.O. Bærenholdt; M. Büscher; and J.D. Scheuer (eds), Design Research: Synergies from Interdisciplinary Perspectives (pp. 201–212). Routledge.

  • Simonsen, Jesper; Morten Hertzum; and Helena Karasti (2015): Supporting clinicians in Infrastructuring. In Enrico Maria Piras; and Gunnar Ellingsen (eds): Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Infrastructures for Healthcare (IHC): Patient-centred Care and Patient generated Data, 18–19 June, 2015, University of Trento, Trento, Italy.

  • Simonsen, Jesper; Morten Hertzum; and John Damm Scheuer (2018). Quality development in health care: Participation vs. Accreditation. Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies, vol. 8, no. S3, pp. 49–69.

  • Star, Susan L. (1999). The ethnography of infrastructure. American Behavioral Scientist, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 377–391.

    Google Scholar 

  • Star, Susan L; and Geoffrey C Bowker (2002). How to infrastructure? In L. A. Lievrouw; and S. Livingstone (eds): The handbook of new media: Social shaping and consequences of ICTs. London: Sage, pp. 151–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Star, Susan L; and Karen Ruhleder (1994). Steps towards an ecology of infrastructure: Complex problems in design and access for large-scale collaborative systems. In Proceedings of the CSCW1994 conference on computer supported cooperative work. New York: ACM Press, pp. 253–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Star, Susan L; and Karen Ruhleder (1996). Steps toward an ecology of infrastructure: Design and access for large information spaces. Information Systems Research, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 111–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Star, Susan Leigh; and Anselm Strauss (1999). Layers of Silence, Arenas of Voice: The Ecology of Visible and Invisible Work. Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), vol. 8, nos. 1–2, pp. 9–30.

  • Stengers, Isabelle (2018). Another science is possible: A manifesto for slow science. Wiley.

  • Strathern, Marilyn (1995). The relation: Issues in complexity and scale. Cambridge: Prickly Pear Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, Anselm (1985): Work and the division of labor. The Sociological Quarterly, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 1–19.

    MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, Anselm (1988): The articulation of project work: An organizational process. The Sociological Quarterly, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 163–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suchman, Lucy (1995). Making work visible. Communications of the ACM, vol. 38, no. 9, pp. 56–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ulriksen, Gro Hilde; Rune Pedersen; and Gunnar Ellingsen (2017). Infrastructuring in healthcare through the OpenEHR architecture. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, vol. 26, no. 1–2, pp. 33–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yndigegn, Signe (2016). Managing resistance and negotiating co-design: Reflections on troublesome and elusive moments. Doctoral dissertation, IT University of Copenhagen, Denmark.

  • Zerubavel, Eviatar (1979). Patterns of time in hospital life: A sociological perspective. Chicago, Il: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The study was part of the Clinical Communication project, a research and development collaboration between Region Zealand, Roskilde University, and University of Copenhagen, Denmark, and Imatis Inc., Norway. The study was financially supported by Region Zealand and Roskilde University. Research assistant Lene Hansen provided practical support and transcribed the selected meetings. We owe thanks to all the clinicians who took part in the activities of the fasting-time project. Special thanks are due to the three hospital representatives in the project group: Dorte S. Jensen, Helle P. Dengsøe, and Monica H. Marqvorsen.

We acknowledge the Velux Visiting Professor Program of The Villum Foundation that funded Helena Karasti’s stay at Roskilde University for a year in 2015-2016 during which the analysis reported in this article was conducted.

Declarations of interest: The authors took part in the fasting-time project and, thereby, also in the project meetings analyzed in this paper. Apart from this participation we have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of People and Technology, Roskilde University, University Street 1, Bldg. 10.1, 4000, Roskilde, Denmark

    Jesper Simonsen

  2. University of Siegen, Siegen, Germany

    Helena Karasti

  3. University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

    Morten Hertzum

Authors
  1. Jesper Simonsen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Helena Karasti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Morten Hertzum
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jesper Simonsen.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Simonsen, J., Karasti, H. & Hertzum, M. Infrastructuring and Participatory Design: Exploring Infrastructural Inversion as Analytic, Empirical and Generative. Comput Supported Coop Work 29, 115–151 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10606-019-09365-w

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10606-019-09365-w

Keywords

  • Information infrastructure
  • Infrastructuring
  • Infrastructural relations
  • Infrastructural inversion
  • Conceptual-analytic, empirical-ethnographic, and generative-designerly strategies
  • Participatory design
  • Effects-driven participatory design
  • Collaborative design
  • Healthcare