Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Effects of Social Network Characteristics on Mental Health Outcomes Among United States Army Reserve and National Guard Soldiers

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Community Mental Health Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We sought to examine the relative salience of multiple social network structural characteristics (e.g., size, composition, quality, substance use) for understanding soldiers’ mental health symptoms (anger, anxiety, depression, PTSD). Data are drawn from soldiers (N = 421) participating in the Operation: SAFETY study. Negative binomial regression models examined the relationship between ten social network characteristics and mental health outcomes, controlling for age, sex, years of military service, and deployment history. Greater number of close network ties was associated with fewer symptoms of anger, anxiety, and depression (ps < 0.05), but not PTSD. Having more illicit drug-using network ties was associated with greater severity of anxiety symptoms (p < 0.05). Finally, more days spent drinking with network members was related to higher levels of anger (p < 0.05). Interpersonal relationships that entail substance use are associated with greater anxiety and anger while a greater number of close ties is associated with fewer anger, anxiety, and depression symptoms.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adler, A. B., LeardMann, C. A., Roenfeldt, K. A., Jacobson, I. G., Forbes, D., Millennium Cohort Study, T. (2020). Magnitude of problematic anger and its predictors in the Millennium Cohort. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 1168. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09206-2

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ahern, J., Worthen, M., Masters, J., Lippman, S. A., Ozer, E. J., & Moos, R. (2015). The challenges of Afghanistan and Iraq Veterans’ transition from military to civilian life and approaches to reconnection. PLoS ONE, 10(7), e0128599. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0128599

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Allan, N. P., Ashrafioun, L., Kolnogorova, K., Raines, A. M., Hoge, C. W., & Stecker, T. (2019). Interactive effects of PTSD and substance use on suicidal ideation and behavior in military personnel: Increased risk from marijuana use. Depression and Anxiety, 36(11), 1072–1079. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22954

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ames, G. M., & Cunradi, C. (2004). Alcohol use and preventing alcohol-related problems among young adults in the military. Alcohol Research & Health, 28(4), 252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ames, G. M., Cunradi, C. B., Moore, R. S., & Stern, P. (2007). Military culture and drinking behavior among U.S. Navy careerists. Journal of Studies Alcohol Drugs, 68(3), 336–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson Goodell, E. M., Homish, D. L., & Homish, G. G. (2018). Characteristics of U.S. Army reserve and national guard couples who use family readiness programs. Military Behavioral Health, 7, 185–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/21635781.2018.1515131

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson Goodell, E. M., Johnson, R. M., Latkin, C. A., Homish, D. L., & Homish, G. G. (2020). Risk and protective effects of social networks on alcohol use problems among Army Reserve and National Guard soldiers. Addictive Behaviors, 103, 106244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106244

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Armed Forces Health Surveillance Branch. (2021) Update: Mental Health Disorders and Mental Health Problems, Active Component, U.S. Armed Forces, 2016–2020 (Msmr, Issue

  • Blevins, C. A., Weathers, F. W., Davis, M. T., Witte, T. K., & Domino, J. L. (2015). The posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(6), 489–498. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22059

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bovin, M. J., Marx, B. P., Weathers, F. W., Gallagher, M. W., Rodriguez, P., Schnurr, P. P., & Keane, T. M. (2015). Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist for diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders-Fifth Edition (PCL-5) in veterans. Psychological Assessment, 28(11), 1379–1391. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000254

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, D. D. (2000). Forgetting in the recall-based elicitation of personal and social networks. Social Networks, 22(1), 29–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8733(99)00017-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, S. B., Gray, K. E., Hoerster, K. D., Fortney, J. C., & Simpson, T. L. (2021). Differences in functional and structural social support among female and male veterans and civilians. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 56(3), 375–386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-020-01862-4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cederbaum, J. A., Wilcox, S. L., Sullivan, K., Lucas, C., & Schuyler, A. (2017) The Influence of Social Support on Dyadic Functioning and Mental Health Among Military Personnel During Postdeployment Reintegration. Public Health Reports, 132(1), 85–92. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5298500/pdf/10.1177_0033354916679984.pdf

  • Cohen, S., Mermelstein, R. J., Kamarck, T., & Hoberman, H. M. (1985). Measuring the functional components of social support. In I. G. Sarason & B. Sarason (Eds.), Social support: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 73–94). Martinus Nijhoff.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Craske, M., Wittchen, U., Bogels, S., Stein, M., Andrews, G., & Lebeu, R. (2013) Severity Measure for Generalized Anxiety Disorder - Adult. In American Psychiatric Association (Ed.), Diagnostic and Stastical Manual V (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing

  • Cutrona, C. E., & Russell, D. W. (1990). Type of social support and specific stress: Towards a theory of optimal matching. In B. R. Sarason, I. G. Sarason, & G. R. Pierce (Eds.), Social support: An interactional view (pp. 319–366). Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Department of Defense (DoD), Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Military Community and Family Policy (ODASD (MC&FP). (2021). 2019 Demographics: Interactive Profile of the Military Community [Online interactive dashboard]. https://demographics.militaryonesource.mil/chapter-3-ready-reserve-personnel/ , Accessed October 21, 2021.

  • Dillon, K. H., Van Voorhees, E. E., Dennis, P. A., Glenn, J. J., Wilks, C. R., Morland, L. A., Beckham, J. C., & Elbogen, E. B. (2020). Anger mediates the relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder and suicidal ideation in veterans. Journal of Affective Disorders, 269, 117–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.03.053

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dillon, K. H., Glenn, J. J., Dennis, P. A., LoSavio, S. T., Cassiello-Robbins, C., Gromatsky, M. A., Beckham, J. C., Calhoun, P. S., & Kimbrel, N. A. (2021). Anger precedes and predicts nonsuicidal self-injury in veterans: Findings from an ecological momentary assessment study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 135, 47–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.01.011

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Goetter, E. M., Hoeppner, S. S., Khan, A. J., Charney, M. E., Wieman, S., Venners, M. R., Avallone, K. M., Rauch, S. A. M., & Simon, N. M. (2020). Combat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Comorbid Major Depression in US Veterans: The Role of Deployment Cycle Adversity and Social Support. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 33(3), 276–284. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22496

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Goldmann, E., Calabrese, J. R., Prescott, M. R., Tamburrino, M., Liberzon, I., Slembarski, R., Shirley, E., Fine, T., Goto, T., Wilson, K., Ganocy, S., Chan, P., Serrano, M. B., Sizemore, J., & Galea, S. (2012). Potentially modifiable pre-, peri-, and postdeployment characteristics associated with deployment-related posttraumatic stress disorder among ohio army national guard soldiers. Annals of Epidemiology, 22(2), 71–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2011.11.003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Griffith, J. (2009). Being a reserve soldier: A matter of social identity. Armed Forces & Society, 36(1), 38–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hatch, S. L., Harvey, S. B., Dandeker, C., Burdett, H., Greenberg, N., Fear, N. T., & Wessely, S. (2013). Life in and after the Armed Forces: Social networks and mental health in the UK military. Sociology of Health & Illness, 35(7), 1045–1064.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heavey, S. C., Homish, D. L., Goodell, E. A., & Homish, G. G. (2017). US reserve soldiers’ combat exposure and intimate partner violence: Not more common but it is more violent. Stress and Health, 33(5), 617–623. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2748

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hinojosa, R., & Hinojosa, M. S. (2011). Using military friendships to optimize postdeployment reintegration for male Operation Iraqi Freedom/Operation Enduring Freedom veterans. Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development, 48(10), 1145–1157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., & Layton, J. B. (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk: A meta-analytic review. PLoS Medicine, 7(7), e1000316. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Holt-Lunstad, J., Robles, T. F., & Sbarra, D. A. (2017). Advancing social connection as a public health priority in the United States. American Psychologist, 72(6), 517–530. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000103

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Homish, G. G., & Leonard, K. E. (2008). The social network and alcohol use. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 69(6), 906–914.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoopsick, R. A., Vest, B. M., Homish, D. L., & Homish, G. G. (2017). Combat exposure, emotional and physical role limitations, and substance use among male United States Army Reserve and National Guard soldiers. Quality of Life Research, 27(1), 137–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-017-1706-2

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hoopsick, R. A., Homish, D. L., Vest, B. M., Bartone, P. T., & Homish, G. G. (2021). Resilience to hazardous drinking among never-deployed male United States Army Reserve and National Guard soldiers. Alcoholism Clinical & Experimental Research, Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.14561

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, T. P. (1991). Mental health, social relations, and social selection: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32(4), 408–423.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaniasty, K., & Norris, F. H. (2008). Longitudinal linkages between perceived social support and posttraumatic stress symptoms: Sequential roles of social causation and social selection. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21(3), 274–281. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20334

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kawachi, I., & Berkman, L. F. (2001). Social ties and mental health. Journal of Urban Health, 78(3), 458–467.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kroenke, K., Strine, T. W., Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B. W., Berry, J. T., & Mokdad, A. H. (2009). The PHQ-8 as a measure of current depression in the general population. Journal of Affective Disorders, 114(1–3), 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2008.06.026

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lau-Barraco, C., & Collins, R. L. (2011). Social networks and alcohol use among nonstudent emerging adults: A preliminary study. Addictive Behaviors, 36(1–2), 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.08.017

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, K. E., & Homish, G. G. (2008). Predictors of heavy drinking and drinking problems over the first 4 years of marriage. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 22(1), 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.22.1.25

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, K. E., Kearns, J., & Mudar, P. (2000). Peer networks among heavy, regular and infrequent drinkers prior to marriage. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61(5), 669–673. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.2000.61.669

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, M. J., Zaharakis, N., & Benotsch, E. G. (2014). Social networks, substance use, and mental health in college students. Journal of American College Health, 62(7), 470–477.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pietrzak, R. H., Javier, F. G., Krystal, J. H., & Southwick, S. M. (2021). Subthreshold post-traumatic stress disorder as a risk factor for post-traumatic stress disorder: Results from a sample of USA veterans. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 219(2), 456–459. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2021.17

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pilkonis, P. A., Choi, S. W., Reise, S. P., Stover, A. M., Riley, W. T., & Cella, D. (2011). Item banks for measuring emotional distress from the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS®): Depression, anxiety, and anger. Assessment, 18(3), 263–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Platt, J., Keyes, K. M., & Koenen, K. C. (2014). Size of the social network versus quality of social support: which is more protective against PTSD? Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 49(8), 1279–1286. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7864543/pdf/nihms-1662067.pdf

  • Polusny, M. A., Erbes, C. R., Murdoch, M., Arbisi, P. A., Thuras, P., & Rath, M. B. (2011). Prospective risk factors for new-onset post-traumatic stress disorder in National Guard soldiers deployed to Iraq. Psychological Medicine, 41(4), 687–698. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291710002047

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reifman, A., Watson, W. K., & McCourt, A. (2006). Social networks and college drinking: Probing processes of social influence and selection. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(6), 820–832.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rueger, S. Y., Malecki, C. K., Pyun, Y., Aycock, C., & Coyle, S. (2016). A meta-analytic review of the association between perceived social support and depression in childhood and adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 142(10), 1017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rugo, K. F., Leifker, F. R., Drake-Brooks, M. M., Snell, M. B., Bryan, C. J., & Bryan, A. O. (2020). Unit cohesion and social support as protective factors against suicide risk and depression among national guard service members. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 39(3), 214–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sripada, R. K., Bohnert, A. S., Teo, A. R., Levine, D. S., Pfeiffer, P. N., Bowersox, N. W., Mizruchi, M. S., Chermack, S. T., Ganoczy, D., & Walters, H. (2015). Social networks, mental health problems, and mental health service utilization in OEF/OIF National Guard veterans. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50(9), 1367–1378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steglich, C., Snijders, T. A. B., & Pearson, M. (2010). Dynamic networks and behavior: separating selection from influence. Sociological Methodology, 40(1), 329–393. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9531.2010.01225.X

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thoits, P. A. (2011). Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 52(2), 145–161. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510395592

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Umberson, D., & Karas Montez, J. (2010). Social relationships and health: A flashpoint for health policy. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(1), S54–S66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vest, B. M., Heavey, S. C., Homish, D. L., & Homish, G. G. (2017). Marital satisfaction, family support, and pre-deployment resiliency factors related to mental health outcomes for reserve and national guard soldiers. Military Behavioral Health, 5(4), 313–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/21635781.2017.1343694

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y., Chung, M. C., Wang, N., Yu, X., & Kenardy, J. (2021). Social support and posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 85, 101998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.101998

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weathers, F., litz, B., Keane, T., Palmieri, P., Marx, B. P., & Schnurr, P. (2013). The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Scale available from the National Center for PTSD at www.ptsd.va.gov. Scale available from the National Center for PTSD at www.ptsd.va.gov.

  • Worthen, M., Rathod, S. D., Cohen, G., Sampson, L., Ursano, R., Gifford, R., Fullerton, C., Galea, S., & Ahern, J. (2014). Anger problems and posttraumatic stress disorder in male and female National Guard and Reserve Service members. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 55, 52–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.04.004

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This research was supported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse award number R01DA034072 to Gregory G. Homish and by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences of the National Institutes of Health under award number UL1TR001412 to the University at Buffalo. This research was also supported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse award number T32DA007292 to John Hopkins University (PI: Brion Maher) in support of Erin Anderson Goodell. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Family Medicine, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, 77 Goodell Street, Suite 220, Buffalo, NY, 14203, USA

    Bonnie M. Vest & Gregory G. Homish

  2. Department of Mental Health, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Erin M. Anderson Goodell

  3. Department of Community Health and Health Behavior, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA

    D. Lynn Homish & Gregory G. Homish

Authors
  1. Bonnie M. Vest
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Erin M. Anderson Goodell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. D. Lynn Homish
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Gregory G. Homish
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

BMV- Conceptualization; Formal Analysis; Methodology; Writing-Original Draft Preparation (lead); Writing-Review & Editing. EAG- Conceptualization; Formal Analysis; Methodology; Writing-Original Draft Preparation; Writing-Review & Editing. DLH- Data Curation; Investigation; Project Administration; Supervision; Validation; Writing- Review & Editing. GGH- Conceptualization; Funding Acquisition (lead); Investigation; Methodology; Resources; Supervision; Writing- Review & Editing.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bonnie M. Vest.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Ethical Approval

This study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board of the State University of New York at Buffalo, the Army Human Research Protections Office, the Office of the Chief – Army Reserve, and the Adjutant General of the National Guard and conducted in accordance with ethical standards for human research.

Informed Consent

All participants provided informed consent to participate.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Vest, B.M., Goodell, E.M.A., Homish, D.L. et al. Effects of Social Network Characteristics on Mental Health Outcomes Among United States Army Reserve and National Guard Soldiers. Community Ment Health J 58, 1268–1278 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-021-00935-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-021-00935-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation