Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

An Evidence-Based Review of Early Intervention and Prevention of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Community Mental Health Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We present an evidence-based review of post-trauma interventions used to prevent posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Literature search of PubMed from 1988 to March 2016 using keywords “Early Intervention AND Prevention of PTSD” yielded 142 articles, of which 52 intervention studies and 6 meta-analyses were included in our review. Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy and modified prolonged exposure delivered within weeks of a potentially traumatic event for people showing signs of distress have the most evidence in the treatment of acute stress and early PTSD symptoms, and the prevention of PTSD. Even though several pharmacological agents have been tried, only hydrocortisone prior to high-risk surgery, severe traumatic injury, or during acute sepsis has adequate evidence for effectiveness in the reduction of acute stress symptoms and prevention of PTSD. There is an urgent need to determine the best targets for interventions after trauma to accelerate recovery and prevent PTSD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 TM. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Amos, T., Stein, D. J., & Ipser, J. C. (2014). Pharmacological interventions for preventing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Online), 7, Cd006239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, S. J., Stover, C. S., & Marans, S. R. (2011). The Child and family traumatic stress intervention: Secondary prevention for youth at risk of developing PTSD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 52(6), 676–685.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Binder, E. B., Bradley, R. G., Liu, W., Epstein, M. P., Deveau, T. C., Mercer, K. B., et al. (2008). Association of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse with risk of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults. Journal of American Medical Association, 299(11), 1291–1305.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bisson, J. I., Shepherd, J. P., Joy, D., Probert, R., & Newcombe, R. G. (2004). Early cognitive-behavioural therapy for post-traumatic stress symptoms after physical injury. Randomised controlled trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 184, 63–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5), 748–766.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brosbe, M. S., Hoefling, K., & Faust, J. (2011). Predicting posttraumatic stress following pediatric injury: A systematic review. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 36(6), 718–729.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brunet, A., Des Groseilliers, I. B., Cordova, M. J., & Ruzek, J. I. (2013). Randomized controlled trial of a brief dyadic cognitive-behavioral intervention designed to prevent PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 4, 21572.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, R. A., Creamer, M., O’Donnell, M., Silove, D., & McFarlane, A. C. (2009). A study of the protective function of acute morphine administration on subsequent posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 65(5), 438–440.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, R. A., Creamer, M., O’Donnell, M., Silove, D., & McFarlane, A. C. (2012). The capacity of acute stress disorder to predict posttraumatic psychiatric disorders. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 46(2), 168–173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, R. A., Creamer, M., O’Donnell, M., Silove, D., McFarlane, A. C., & Forbes, D. (2015). A comparison of the capacity of DSM-IV and DSM-5 acute stress disorder definitions to predict posttraumatic stress disorder and related disorders. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 76(4), 391–397.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, R. A., Harvey, A. G., Dang, S. T., Sackville, T., & Basten, C. (1998). Treatment of acute stress disorder: A comparison of cognitive-behavioral therapy and supportive counseling. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(5), 862–866.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, R. A., Mastrodomenico, J., Felmingham, K. L., Hopwood, S., Kenny, L., Kandris, E., et al. (2008). Treatment of acute stress disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65(6), 659–667.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, R. A., Moulds, M. L., Nixon, R. D., Mastrodomenico, J., Felmingham, K., & Hopwood, S. (2006). Hypnotherapy and cognitive behaviour therapy of acute stress disorder: A 3-year follow-up. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(9), 1331–1335.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, R. A., Sackville, T., Dang, S. T., Moulds, M., & Guthrie, R. (1999). Treating acute stress disorder: An evaluation of cognitive behavior therapy and supportive counseling techniques. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(11), 1780–1786.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bugg, A., Turpin, G., Mason, S., & Scholes, C. (2009). A randomised controlled trial of the effectiveness of writing as a self-help intervention for traumatic injury patients at risk of developing post-traumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47(1), 6–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comings, D. E., Comings, B. G., Muhleman, D., Dietz, G., Shahbahrami, B., Tast, D., et al. (1991). The dopamine D2 receptor locus as a modifying gene in neuropsychiatric disorders. Journal of American Medical Association, 266(13), 1793–1800.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Comings, D. E., Muhleman, D., & Gysin, R. (1996). Dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) gene and susceptibility to posttraumatic stress disorder: A study and replication. Biological Psychiatry, 40(5), 368–372.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Creamer, M., Burgess, P., & McFarlane, A. C. (2001). Post-traumatic stress disorder: Findings from the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-being. Psychological Medicine, 31(7), 1237–1247.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crossmann, A., Schulz, S. M., Kuhlkamp, V., Ritter, O., Neuser, H., Schumacher, B., et al. (2010). A randomized controlled trial of secondary prevention of anxiety and distress in a German sample of patients with an implantable cardioverter defibrillator. Psychosomatic Medicine, 72(5), 434–441.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Bellis, M. D., Lefter, L., Trickett, P. K., & Putnam, F. W. Jr. (1994). Urinary catecholamine excretion in sexually abused girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33(3), 320–327.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Vries, G. J., & Olff, M. (2009). The lifetime prevalence of traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in the Netherlands. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(4), 259–267.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Debiec, J., Bush, D. E., & LeDoux, J. E. (2011). Noradrenergic enhancement of reconsolidation in the amygdala impairs extinction of conditioned fear in rats–a possible mechanism for the persistence of traumatic memories in PTSD. Depression and Anxiety, 28(3), 186–193.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Debiec, J., & LeDoux, J. E. (2006). Noradrenergic signaling in the amygdala contributes to the reconsolidation of fear memory: Treatment implications for PTSD. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1071, 521–524.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Delahanty, D. L., Gabert-Quillen, C., Ostrowski, S. A., Nugent, N. R., Fischer, B., Morris, A., et al. (2013). The efficacy of initial hydrocortisone administration at preventing posttraumatic distress in adult trauma patients: A randomized trial. CNS Spectrums, 18(2), 103–111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dieltjens, T., Moonens, I., Van Praet, K., De Buck, E., & Vandekerckhove, P. (2014). A systematic literature search on psychological first aid: Lack of evidence to develop guidelines. PLoS One, 9(12), e114714.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dunmore, E., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (2001). A prospective investigation of the role of cognitive factors in persistent posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after physical or sexual assault. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39(9), 1063–1084.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(4), 319–345.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2003). Early psychological interventions for adult survivors of trauma: A review. Biological Psychiatry, 53(9), 817–826.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Hackmann, A., McManus, F., Fennell, M., Herbert, C., et al. (2003a). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive therapy, a self-help booklet, and repeated assessments as early interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(10), 1024–1032.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, A., Mayou, R. A., & Bryant, B. (2003b). Cognitive predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder in children: Results of a prospective longitudinal study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(1), 1–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrada-Noli, M., Asberg, M., Ormstad, K., Lundin, T., & Sundbom, E. (1998). Suicidal behavior after severe trauma. Part 1: PTSD diagnoses, psychiatric comorbidity, and assessments of suicidal behavior. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11(1), 103–112.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Hearst-Ikeda, D., & Perry, K. J. (1995). Evaluation of a brief cognitive-behavioral program for the prevention of chronic PTSD in recent assault victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63(6), 948–955.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Zoellner, L. A., & Feeny, N. C. (2006). An evaluation of three brief programs for facilitating recovery after assault. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19(1), 29–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, J. H., Burkle, F. M. Jr., Bass, J., Pia, F. A., Epstein, J. L., & Markenson, D. (2012). The effectiveness of psychological first aid as a disaster intervention tool: Research analysis of peer-reviewed literature from 1990 to 2010. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 6(3), 247–252.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freyth, C., Elsesser, K., Lohrmann, T., & Sartory, G. (2010). Effects of additional prolonged exposure to psychoeducation and relaxation in acute stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24(8), 909–917.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frijling, J. L., van Zuiden, M., Koch, S. B., Nawijn, L., Goslings, J. C., Luitse, J. S., et al. (2014). Efficacy of oxytocin administration early after psychotrauma in preventing the development of PTSD: Study protocol of a randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry, 14, 92.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gelernter, J., Southwick, S., Goodson, S., Morgan, A., Nagy, L., & Charney, D. S. (1999). No association between D2 dopamine receptor (DRD2) “A” system alleles, or DRD2 haplotypes, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 45(5), 620–625.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gelpin, E., Bonne, O., Peri, T., Brandes, D., & Shalev, A. Y. (1996). Treatment of recent trauma survivors with benzodiazepines: A prospective study. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 57(9), 390–394.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Good, A. J., & Westbrook, R. F. (1995). Effects of a microinjection of morphine into the amygdala on the acquisition and expression of conditioned fear and hypoalgesia in rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 109(4), 631–641.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hobfoll, S. E., Watson, P., Bell, C. C., Bryant, R. A., Brymer, M. J., Friedman, M. J., et al. (2007). Five essential elements of immediate and mid-term mass trauma intervention: Empirical evidence. Psychiatry, 70(4), 283–315 (discussion 316–269).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoge, E. A., Worthington, J. J., Nagurney, J. T., Chang, Y., Kay, E. B., Feterowski, C. M., et al. (2012). Effect of acute posttrauma propranolol on PTSD outcome and physiological responses during script-driven imagery. CNS Neuroscience and Therapeutics, 18(1), 21–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holbrook, T. L., Galarneau, M. R., Dye, J. L., Quinn, K., & Dougherty, A. L. (2010). Morphine use after combat injury in Iraq and post-traumatic stress disorder. The New England Journal of Medicine, 362(2), 110–117.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hruska, B., Cullen, P. K., & Delahanty, D. L. (2014). Pharmacological modulation of acute trauma memories to prevent PTSD: Considerations from a developmental perspective. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 112, 122–129.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Irvine, J., Firestone, J., Ong, L., Cribbie, R., Dorian, P., Harris, L., et al. (2011). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive behavior therapy tailored to psychological adaptation to an implantable cardioverter defibrillator. Psychosomatic Medicine, 73(3), 226–233.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jotzo, M., & Poets, C. F. (2005). Helping parents cope with the trauma of premature birth: An evaluation of a trauma-preventive psychological intervention. Pediatrics, 115(4), 915–919.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kenardy, J., Thompson, K., Le Brocque, R., & Olsson, K. (2008). Information-provision intervention for children and their parents following pediatric accidental injury. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 17(5), 316–325.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52(12), 1048–1060.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kobayashi, I., Sledjeski, E., Fallon, W. Jr., Spoonster, E., Riccio, D., & Delahanty, D. (2011). Effects of early albuterol (salbutamol) administration on the development of posttraumatic stress symptoms. Psychiatry Research, 185(1–2), 296–298.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kornor, H., Winje, D., Ekeberg, O., Weisaeth, L., Kirkehei, I., Johansen, K., et al. (2008). Early trauma-focused cognitive-behavioural therapy to prevent chronic post-traumatic stress disorder and related symptoms: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 8, 81.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kosten, T. R., Mason, J. W., Giller, E. L., Ostroff, R. B., & Harkness, L. (1987). Sustained urinary norepinephrine and epinephrine elevation in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 12(1), 13–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leor, A., Dolberg, O. T., Eshel, S. P., Yagil, Y., & Schreiber, S. (2013). Trauma-Focused early intensive cognitive behavioral intervention (TF-EICBI) in children and adolescent survivors of suicide bombing attacks (SBAs). A preliminary study. American Journal of Disaster Medicine, 8(4), 227–234.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewin, R. J., Coulton, S., Frizelle, D. J., Kaye, G., & Cox, H. (2009). A brief cognitive behavioural preimplantation and rehabilitation programme for patients receiving an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator improves physical health and reduces psychological morbidity and unplanned readmissions. Heart (British Cardiac Society), 95(1), 63–69.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matar, M. A., Cohen, H., Kaplan, Z., & Zohar, J. (2006). The effect of early poststressor intervention with sertraline on behavioral responses in an animal model of post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31(12), 2610–2618.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matsuoka, Y., Nishi, D., Yonemoto, N., Hamazaki, K., Hashimoto, K., & Hamazaki, T. (2010). Omega-3 fatty acids for secondary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder after accidental injury: An open-label pilot study. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 30(2), 217–219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayou, R. A., Ehlers, A., & Bryant, B. (2002). Posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents: 3-year follow-up of a prospective longitudinal study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(6), 665–675.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNally, G. P., & Westbrook, R. F. (2003). Anterograde amnesia for Pavlovian fear conditioning and the role of one-trial overshadowing: Effects of preconditioning exposures to morphine in the rat. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 29(3), 222–232.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mellman, T. A., Bustamante, V., David, D., & Fins, A. I. (2002). Hypnotic medication in the aftermath of trauma. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 63(12), 1183–1184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mercer, K. B., Orcutt, H. K., Quinn, J. F., Fitzgerald, C. A., Conneely, K. N., Barfield, R. T., et al. (2012). Acute and posttraumatic stress symptoms in a prospective gene x environment study of a university campus shooting. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(1), 89–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merenlender-Wagner, A., Dikshtein, Y., & Yadid, G. (2009). The beta-endorphin role in stress-related psychiatric disorders. Current Drug Targets, 10(11), 1096–1108.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mouthaan, J., Sijbrandij, M., de Vries, G. J., Reitsma, J. B., van de Schoot, R., Goslings, J. C., et al. (2013). Internet-based early intervention to prevent posttraumatic stress disorder in injury patients: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 15(8), e165.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mouthaan, J., Sijbrandij, M., Reitsma, J. B., Luitse, J. S., Goslings, J. C., Gersons, B. P., et al. (2015). The role of early pharmacotherapy in the development of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms after traumatic injury: An observational cohort study in consecutive patients. General Hospital Psychiatry, 37(3), 230–235.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nash, W. P., & Watson, P. J. (2012). Review of VA/DOD Clinical Practice Guideline on management of acute stress and interventions to prevent posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 49(5), 637–648.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 52–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Panagioti, M., Gooding, P., & Tarrier, N. (2009). Post-traumatic stress disorder and suicidal behavior: A narrative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(6), 471–482.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pitman, R. K., & Delahanty, D. L. (2005). Conceptually driven pharmacologic approaches to acute trauma. CNS Spectrums, 10(2), 99–106.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pitman, R. K., Rasmusson, A. M., Koenen, K. C., Shin, L. M., Orr, S. P., Gilbertson, M. W., et al. (2012). Biological studies of post-traumatic stress disorder. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(11), 769–787.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pitman, R. K., Sanders, K. M., Zusman, R. M., Healy, A. R., Cheema, F., Lasko, N. B., et al. (2002). Pilot study of secondary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder with propranolol. Biological Psychiatry, 51(2), 189–192.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, H., Acierno, R., Waldrop, A. E., King, L., King, D., Danielson, C., et al. (2007). Randomized controlled evaluation of an early intervention to prevent post-rape psychopathology. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(10), 2432–2447.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, N. P., Kitchiner, N. J., Kenardy, J., & Bisson, J. (2009a). Multiple session early psychological interventions for the prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, Cd006869.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, N. P., Kitchiner, N. J., Kenardy, J., & Bisson, J. I. (2009b). Systematic review and meta-analysis of multiple-session early interventions following traumatic events. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 166(3), 293–301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, N. P., Kitchiner, N. J., Kenardy, J., & Bisson, J. I. (2010). Early psychological interventions to treat acute traumatic stress symptoms. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, Cd007944.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rose, S., Bisson, J., Churchill, R., & Wessely, S. (2002). Psychological debriefing for preventing post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, Cd000560.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothbaum, B. O., Houry, D., Heekin, M., Leiner, A. S., Daugherty, J., Smith, L. S., et al. (2008). A pilot study of an exposure-based intervention in the ED designed to prevent posttraumatic stress disorder. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 26(3), 326–330.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rothbaum, B. O., Kearns, M. C., Price, M., Malcoun, E., Davis, M., Ressler, K. J., et al. (2012). Early intervention may prevent the development of posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized pilot civilian study with modified prolonged exposure. Biological Psychiatry, 72(11), 957–963.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rothbaum, B. O., Kearns, M. C., Reiser, E., Davis, J. S., Kerley, K. A., Rothbaum, A. O., et al. (2014). Early intervention following trauma may mitigate genetic risk for PTSD in civilians: A pilot prospective emergency department study. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 75(12), 1380–1387.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sareen, J., Houlahan, T., Cox, B. J., & Asmundson, G. J. (2005). Anxiety disorders associated with suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in the National Comorbidity Survey. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 193(7), 450–454.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saxe, G., Stoddard, F., Courtney, D., Cunningham, K., Chawla, N., Sheridan, R., et al. (2001). Relationship between acute morphine and the course of PTSD in children with burns. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(8), 915–921.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schelling, G., Briegel, J., Roozendaal, B., Stoll, C., Rothenhausler, H. B., & Kapfhammer, H. P. (2001). The effect of stress doses of hydrocortisone during septic shock on posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors. Biological Psychiatry, 50(12), 978–985.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schelling, G., Roozendaal, B., & De Quervain, D. J. (2004). Can posttraumatic stress disorder be prevented with glucocorticoids? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1032, 158–166.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schelling, G., Stoll, C., Kapfhammer, H. P., Rothenhausler, H. B., Krauseneck, T., Durst, K., et al. (1999). The effect of stress doses of hydrocortisone during septic shock on posttraumatic stress disorder and health-related quality of life in survivors. Critical Care Medicine, 27(12), 2678–2683.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shalev, A. Y., Ankri, Y., Israeli-Shalev, Y., Peleg, T., Adessky, R., & Freedman, S. (2012). Prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder by early treatment: Results from the Jerusalem Trauma Outreach and prevention study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(2), 166–176.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, R. J., St John, N., Lilo, E. A., Jo, B., Benitz, W., Stevenson, D, K., et al. (2013). Prevention of traumatic stress in mothers with preterm infants: A randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics, 132(4), e886–e894.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, R. J., St John, N., Lilo, E., Jo, B., Benitz, W., Stevenson, D, K., et al. (2014). Prevention of traumatic stress in mothers of preterms: 6-month outcomes. Pediatrics, 134(2), e481–e488.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shekelle, P. G., Woolf, S. H., Eccles, M., & Grimshaw, J. (1999). Clinical guidelines: Developing guidelines. British Medical Journal, 318(7183), 593–596.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sijbrandij, M., Olff, M., Reitsma, J. B., Carlier, I. V., de Vries, M. H., & Gersons, B. P. (2007). Treatment of acute posttraumatic stress disorder with brief cognitive behavioral therapy: A randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(1), 82–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skelton, K., Ressler, K. J., Norrholm, S. D., Jovanovic, T., & Bradley-Davino, B. (2012). PTSD and gene variants: New pathways and new thinking. Neuropharmacology, 62(2), 628–637.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stallard, P., & Smith, E. (2007). Appraisals and cognitive coping styles associated with chronic post-traumatic symptoms in child road traffic accident survivors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 48(2), 194–201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stallard, P., Velleman, R., Salter, E., Howse, I., Yule, W., & Taylor, G. (2006). A randomised controlled trial to determine the effectiveness of an early psychological intervention with children involved in road traffic accidents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 47(2), 127–134.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stanovic, J. K., James, K. A., & Vandevere, C. A. (2001). The effectiveness of risperidone on acute stress symptoms in adult burn patients: A preliminary retrospective pilot study. The Journal of Burn Care & Rehabilitation, 22(3), 210–213.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, M. B., Kerridge, C., Dimsdale, J. E., & Hoyt, D. B. (2007). Pharmacotherapy to prevent PTSD: Results from a randomized controlled proof-of-concept trial in physically injured patients. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(6), 923–932.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stoddard, F. J., Sorrentino, J., Ceranoglu, E. A., Saxe, T. A., Murphy, G., Drake, J. M., J, E., et al. (2009). Preliminary evidence for the effects of morphine on posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in one- to four-year-olds with burns. Journal of Burn Care & Research, 30(5), 836–843.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suliman, S., Seedat, S., Pingo, J., Sutherland, T., Zohar, J., & Stein, D. J. (2015). Escitalopram in the prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder: A pilot randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry, 15, 24.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka, M., Kohno, Y., Tsuda, A., Nakagawa, R., Ida, Y., Iimori, K., et al. (1983). Differential effects of morphine on noradrenaline release in brain regions of stressed and non-stressed rats. Brain Research, 275(1), 105–115.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • True, W. R., Rice, J., Eisen, S. A., Heath, A. C., Goldberg, J., Lyons, M. J., et al. (1993). A twin study of genetic and environmental contributions to liability for posttraumatic stress symptoms. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50(4), 257–264.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turpin, G., Downs, M., & Mason, S. (2005). Effectiveness of providing self-help information following acute traumatic injury: Randomised controlled trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 187, 76–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaiva, G., Ducrocq, F., Jezequel, K., Averland, B., Lestavel, P., Brunet, A., et al. (2003). Immediate treatment with propranolol decreases posttraumatic stress disorder two months after trauma. Biological Psychiatry, 54(9), 947–949.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Emmerik, A. A., Kamphuis, J. H., Hulsbosch, A. M., & Emmelkamp, P. M. (2002). Single session debriefing after psychological trauma: A meta-analysis. Lancet, 360(9335), 766–771.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vedantham, K., Brunet, A., Neylan, T. C., Weiss, D. S., & Mannar, C. R. (2000). Neurobiological findings in posttraumatic stress disorder: A review. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 2(1), 23–29.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Weis, F., Kilger, E., Roozendaal, B., de Quervain, D. J., Lamm, P., Schmidt, M., et al. (2006). Stress doses of hydrocortisone reduce chronic stress symptoms and improve health-related quality of life in high-risk patients after cardiac surgery: A randomized study. The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, 131(2), 277–282.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolmer, L., Laor, N., Dedeoglu, C., Siev, J., & Yazgan, Y. (2005). Teacher-mediated intervention after disaster: A controlled three-year follow-up of children’s functioning. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 46(11), 1161–1168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Halligan, S. L., & Bierer, L. M. (2001). Relationship of parental trauma exposure and PTSD to PTSD, depressive and anxiety disorders in offspring. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 35(5), 261–270.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zatzick, D., Roy-Byrne, P., Russo, J., Rivara, F., Droesch, R., Wagner, A., et al. (2004). A randomized effectiveness trial of stepped collaborative care for acutely injured trauma survivors. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(5), 498–506.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zatzick, D., Rivara, F., Jurkovich, G., Russo, J., Trusz, S. G., Wang, J., et al. (2011). Enhancing the population impact of collaborative care interventions: Mixed method development and implementation of stepped care targeting posttraumatic stress disorder and related comorbidities after acute trauma. General Hospital Psychiatry, 33(2), 123–134.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zatzick, D., Jurkovich, G., Rivara, F. P., Russo, J., Wagner, A., Wang, J., et al. (2013). A randomized stepped care intervention trial targeting posttraumatic stress disorder for surgically hospitalized injury survivors. Annals of Surgery, 257(3), 390–399.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zatzick, D. F., Rivara, F. P., Nathens, A. B., Jurkovich, G. J., Wang, J., Fan, M. Y., et al. (2007). A nationwide US study of post-traumatic stress after hospitalization for physical injury. Psychological Medicine, 37(10), 1469–1480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zoellner, L. A., Feeny, N. C., Eftekhari, A., & Foa, E. B. (2011). Changes in negative beliefs following three brief programs for facilitating recovery after assault. Depression and Anxiety, 28(7), 532–540.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zohar, J., Sonnino, R., Juven-Wetzler, A., & Cohen, H. (2009). Can posttraumatic stress disorder be prevented? CNS Spectrums, 14(Suppl 1), 44–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zohar, J., Yahalom, H., Kozlovsky, N., Cwikel-Hamzany, S., Matar, M. A., Kaplan, Z., et al. (2011). High dose hydrocortisone immediately after trauma may alter the trajectory of PTSD: Interplay between clinical and animal studies. European Neuropsychopharmacology: The Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 21(11), 796–809.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Authors would like to thank Deepesh Chandrasekharan, PhD., Rachel E. Fargason, MD and Jaymee Nelson, MD who helped in editing the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1713 6th Avenue South, Birmingham, AL, 35210, USA

    Badari Birur & Lori L. Davis

  2. Department of Psychiatry, Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, 70567, Johnson City, TN, 37614-1707, USA

    Norman C. Moore

  3. VA Medical Center, 3701, Loop Road East, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35404, USA

    Lori L. Davis

Authors
  1. Badari Birur
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Norman C. Moore
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Lori L. Davis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Badari Birur.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

Dr. Davis has served as a consultant/advisory board for Otsuka, Tonix, Bracket, and Lundbeck; and received research funding from Tonix, Otsuka, Merck, and Forest. Dr. Birur and Dr. Moore have no conflict of interest to disclose.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Birur, B., Moore, N.C. & Davis, L.L. An Evidence-Based Review of Early Intervention and Prevention of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Community Ment Health J 53, 183–201 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-016-0047-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-016-0047-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation