Abstract
Surveying and quantifying the bushmeat crisis in Africa requires up-front, reliable species-level identification. We conducted a comprehensive survey of 31 trading places where bushmeat are sold in Côte d’Ivoire (West Africa) and two seizures from Europe, using a multi-gene DNA-typing approach and a dedicated species-assignment pipeline (DNAbushmeat). We identified 47 wild and five domestic species-level taxa from 348 collected carcasses, including mammals (15 Cetartiodactyla, 10 Rodentia, seven Carnivora, seven Primates, two Pholidota, two Lagomorpha, one Hyracoidea, one Chiroptera), reptiles (two Squamata), birds (one Bucerotiformes, one Galliformes, one Otidiformes) and fish (one Perciformes). Our DNA-based approach allowed the detection of two separate lineages of red-flanked duikers (Cephalophus rufilatus), a yet unreferenced cane rat (but possibly Thryonomys gregorianus) and two cryptic species of Gambian rat (Cricetomys). We also observed important levels of intraspecific diversity in several mammals and squamates, suggesting additional cryptic diversity within bushmeat species from Côte d’Ivoire. More than half of the bushmeat carcasses were inaccurately identified, with European customs peaking at 100% inaccuracy. Our study also explored the use of diversity indices among bushmeat markets to identify ‘hotspot’ market places where biodiversity would be the most impacted. Overall, 12 protected species (including pangolins, crocodiles, primates and antelopes) were impacted by the bushmeat trade in Côte d’Ivoire, indicating weak law enforcement related to game protection. We suggest that the recognition of the bushmeat sector by the state and its DNA-based surveillance is necessary to reach a sustainable management of the bushmeat trade in Côte d’Ivoire.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The nucleotide sequences used in this study are deposited in Genbank.
References
Adenyo C, Kayang BB, Owusu EH et al (2017) Genetic diversity of grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus, Rodentia, Hystricomorpha) in Ghana based on microsatellite markers. West Afr J Appl Ecol 25:1–15
Bachmann ME, Nielsen MR, Cohen H et al (2020) Saving rodents, losing primates—Why we need tailored bushmeat management strategies. People Nat 2:889–902. https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10119
Baker CS (2008) A truer measure of the market: the molecular ecology of fisheries and wildlife trade. Mol Ecol 17:3985–3998. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03867.x
Baker RJ, Bradley RD (2006) Speciation in mammals and the genetic species concept. J Mammal 87:643–662. https://doi.org/10.1644/06-MAMM-F-038R2.1
Barber BK (2013) Annual research review: the experience of youth with political conflict: challenging notions of resilience and encouraging research refinement. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 54:461–473. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12056
Barnes RFW (2002) The bushmeat boom and bust in West and Central Africa. Oryx 36:236–242. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605302000443
Barychka T, Mace GM, Purves DW (2021) The madingley general ecosystem model predicts bushmeat yields, species extinction rates and ecosystem-level impacts of bushmeat harvesting. Oikos 130:1930–1942. https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.07748
Baselga A (2010) Partitioning the turnover and nestedness components of beta diversity. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 19:134–143. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00490.x
Baselga A, Orme CDL (2012) Betapart: an R package for the study of beta diversity. Methods Ecol Evol 3:808–812. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2041-210X.2012.00224.x
Bassett TJ (2005) Card-carrying hunters, rural poverty, and wildlife decline in northern Côte d’Ivoire. Geogr J 171:24–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4959.2005.00147.x
Bene JCK, Gamys J, Dufour S (2013) Marketing channel of hunting products in northern Nimba County. Liberia Livest Res Rural Dev 25:2013
Bitty EA, Kadjo B, Bene JCK, Kouassi PK (2014) Bushmeat survey an indicator of wildlife disappearance in Soubre Region, Côte d’Ivoire. Livest Res Rural Dev 26:1–7
Bitty EA, Gonedelé Bi S, Bene J-CK et al (2015) Cocoa farming and primate extirpation inside Côte d’Ivoire protected areas. Trop Conserv Sci 8:95–113. https://doi.org/10.1177/194008291500800110
Bohoussou KH, Akpatou KB, Kouassi YWR, Kpangui KB (2018) Diversité des Mammifères et valeur pour la conservation des reliques forestières au sein d’une concession agro-industrielle au sud-ouest de la Côte d’Ivoire. VertigO- Rev Électronique En Sci Environ. https://doi.org/10.4000/vertigo.19947
Borrow N, Demey R (2001) Birds of western Africa. Christopher Helm, London, 832p
Bouckaert R, Heled J, Kühnert D et al (2014) BEAST 2: a software platform for Bayesian evolutionary analysis. PLOS Comput Biol 10:e1003537. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003537
Bouckaert R, Vaughan TG, Barido-Sottani J et al (2019) BEAST 2.5: an advanced software platform for Bayesian evolutionary analysis. PLoS Comput Biol 15:e1006650. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006650
Bradley RD, Baker RJ (2001) A test of the genetic species concept: cytochrome-b sequences and mammals. J Mammal 82:960–973. https://doi.org/10.1644/1545-1542(2001)082%3c0960:ATOTGS%3e2.0.CO;2
Brodie JF, Giordano AJ, Zipkin EF et al (2015) Correlation and persistence of hunting and logging impacts on tropical rainforest mammals. Conserv Biol 29:110–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12389
Brown D (2007) Is the best the enemy of the good? Institutional and livelihoods perspectives on bushmeat harvesting and trade—some issues and challenges. In: Bushmeat and livelihoods: wildlife management and poverty reduction. Wiley, New York, pp 111–124
Caspary H-U (1999) When the monkey ‘goes butcher’: hunting, trading and consumption of bush meat in the region of the Taï National Park, South-west Côte d’Ivoire. In: Seminar proceedings. NTFP research in the Tropenbos Programme: results and perspectives, Wageningen, Netherlands, 28 January 1999. The Tropenbos Foundation, pp 123–130
Caspary HU, Momo J (1998) La chasse villageoise en Côte d’Ivoire résultats dans le cadre de l’étude filiere de viande de brousse (Enquête Chasseurs). Rapp DPN Banq Mond Abidj Côte D’Ivoire
Caspary H-U, Kone I, Koné I, et al (2001) La chasse et la filière viande de brousse dans l’espace Taï, Côte d’Ivoire, Série 2, Abidjan. Tropenbos Abidjan (Côte d'Ivoire), 170p
Chaber A-L, Allebone-Webb S, Lignereux Y et al (2010) The scale of illegal meat importation from Africa to Europe via Paris. Conserv Lett 3:317–321. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2010.00121.x
Chao A (1987) Estimating the population size for capture-recapture data with unequal catchability. Biometrics 43:783–791. https://doi.org/10.2307/2531532
Chatelain C, Gautier L, Spichiger R (1996) A recent history of forest fragmentation in southwestern Ivory Coast. Biodivers Conserv 5:37–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00056291
Christophersen T, Nasi R (2008) Conservation et utilisation durable des ressources fauniques dans le contexte de la convention sur la diversité biologique (CDB): la crise de la viande de brousse. Nature & Faune, 23(1) : 35-42
Colwell RK, Elsensohn JE (2014) EstimateS turns 20: statistical estimation of species richness and shared species from samples, with non-parametric extrapolation. Ecography 37:609–613. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.00814
Coullin G, Amadou B (2006) Mission suivi de l’état de la conservation du parc national de Taï en Côte d’Ivoire, site de patrimoine mondial. Rapport: UICN/UNESCO, Paris (France) 27p
Cowlishaw G, Mendelson S, Rowcliffe JM (2005) Evidence for post-depletion sustainability in a mature bushmeat market. J Appl Ecol 42:460–468. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01046.x
Cronin DT, Sesink Clee PR, Mitchell MW et al (2017) Conservation strategies for understanding and combating the primate bushmeat trade on Bioko Island. Equatorial Guinea Am J Primatol 79:22663. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22663
Dawson S (2018) Bushmeat. In: Costa R, Pittia P (eds) Food ethics education. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 209–220
Deagle BE, Jarman SN, Coissac E et al (2014) DNA metabarcoding and the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I marker: not a perfect match. Biol Lett. https://doi.org/10.1098/RSBL.2014.0562
Din Dipita A, Missoup AD, Tindo M, Gaubert P (2022) DNA-typing improves illegal wildlife trade surveys: tracing the Cameroonian bushmeat trade. Biol Conserv 269:109552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109552
Dowell SA, Portik DM, de Buffrénil V et al (2016) Molecular data from contemporary and historical collections reveal a complex story of cryptic diversification in the Varanus (Polydaedalus) niloticus species group. Mol Phylogenet Evol 94:591–604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2015.10.004
Eaton MJ, Meyers GL, Kolokotronis S-O et al (2010) Barcoding bushmeat: molecular identification of Central African and South American harvested vertebrates. Conserv Genet 11:1389–1404. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-009-9967-0
Edderai D, Houben P, Tadenvoc Y, et al (2004) Méthodologie d’étude du commerce de la consommation des viandes de brousse dans les grandes villes d’Afrique : a multicentric approach. Game Wildlife Science, Paris (France), pp 643-662
Edgar RC (2004) MUSCLE: Multiple sequence alignment with high accuracy and high throughput. Nucleic Acids Res 32:1792–1797. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkh340
Fa JE, Peres CA, Meeuwig J (2002) Bushmeat exploitation in tropical forests: an intercontinental comparison. Conserv Biol 16:232–237. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00275.x
Fa JE, Seymour S, Dupain J et al (2006) Getting to grips with the magnitude of exploitation: Bushmeat in the Cross-Sanaga rivers region, Nigeria and Cameroon. Biol Conserv 129:497–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.11.031
Faith DP (2013) Biodiversity and evolutionary history: useful extensions of the PD phylogenetic diversity assessment framework. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1289:69–89. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12186
Falk H, Dürr S, Hauser R et al (2013) Illegal import of bushmeat and other meat products into Switzerland on commercial passenger flights. Rev Sci Tech Int Epiz 32:727–739
Fargeot C (2004) La chasse commerciale en Afrique centrale: La venaison ou le négoce d’un produit vivrier. Bois for Trop 282:27–40
Fargeot C (2009) Le commerce de la viande de chasse en Afrique Centrale : étude d’un marché-porte. Le PK 12 à Bangui (RCA). In: Colloq. SFER Chasse Territ. Déveleppement Durable Outils Anal. En Jeux Perspect. 25–26 Mars 2009 Clermont-Ferrand Fr. https://agritrop.cirad.fr/549537/. Accessed 14 Aug 2021
Felsenstein J (1985) Confidence limits on phylogenies: an approach using the bootstrap. Evolution 39:783–791
Friant S, Ayambem WA, Alobi AO et al (2020) Eating bushmeat improves food security in a biodiversity and infectious isease “Hotspot.” EcoHealth 17:125–138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-020-01473-0
Fuashi NA, Ekane MM, Jacqueline E, Zeh FA (2019) An evaluation of poaching and bushmeat off takes in the Ebo Forest Reserve (EFR), Littoral Region, Cameroon. J Ecol Nat Environ 11:14–25. https://doi.org/10.5897/JENE2018.0711
Gaubert P, Njiokou F, Olayemi A et al (2015) Bushmeat genetics: setting up a reference framework for the DNA typing of African forest bushmeat. Mol Ecol Resour 15:633–651. https://doi.org/10.1111/1755-0998.12334
Gombeer S, Nebesse C, Musaba P et al (2021) Exploring the bushmeat market in Brussels, Belgium: a clandestine luxury business. Biodivers Conserv 30:55–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-020-02074-7
Gonedelé Bi S, Koné I, Bitty AE et al (2012) Distribution and conservation status of catarrhine primates in Côte d’Ivoire (West Africa). Folia Primatol (basel) 83:11–23. https://doi.org/10.1159/000338752
Gonedelé Bi S, Koné I, Béné JCK et al (2017) Bushmeat hunting around a remnant coastal rainforest in Côte d’Ivoire. Oryx 51:418–427. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605315001453
Grantham HS, Duncan A, Evans TD et al (2020) Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity. Nat Commun 11:5978. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3
Hall T (1999) BioEdit: a user-friendly biological sequence alignment editor and analysis program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic Acids Symp Ser 41:95–98
Hassanin A, Delsuc F, Ropiquet A et al (2012) Pattern and timing of diversification of Cetartiodactyla (Mammalia, Laurasiatheria), as revealed by a comprehensive analysis of mitochondrial genomes. C R Biol 335:32–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2011.11.002
Hebert PDN, Ratnasingham S, de Waard JR (2003) Barcoding animal life: cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 divergences among closely related species. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 270:S96–S99. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2003.0025
Hebert PDN, Penton EH, Burns JM et al (2004) Ten species in one: DNA barcoding reveals cryptic species in the neotropical skipper butterfly Astraptes fulgerator. Proc Natl Acad Sci 101:14812–14817. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0406166101
Heighton SP, Gaubert P (2021) A timely systematic review on pangolin research, commercialization, and popularization to identify knowledge gaps and produce conservation guidelines. Biol Conserv 256:109042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109042
Ingram DJ, Cronin DT, Challender DWS et al (2019) Characterising trafficking and trade of pangolins in the Gulf of Guinea. Glob Ecol Conserv 17:e00576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00576
IUCN (2021) The IUCN red list of threatened species. In: IUCN red list threat. Species. https://www.iucnredlist.org/en. Accessed 16 Dec 2021
Jaccard P (1901) Etude comparative de la distribution florale dans une portion des Alpes et des Jura. Bull Soc Vaudoise Sci Nat 37:547–579
Jones-Bowen E, Pendry S (1999) The threat to primates and other mammals from the bushmeat trade in Africa, and how this threat could be diminished*. Oryx 33:233–246. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3008.1999.00066.x
Kamgaing TOW, Dzefack ZCB, Yasuoka H (2019) Declining ungulate populations in an African rainforest: evidence from local knowledge, ecological surveys, and bushmeat records. Front Ecol Evol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00249
Kembel SW, Cowan PD, Helmus MR et al (2010) Picante: R tools for integrating phylogenies and ecology. Bioinformatics 26:1463–1464
Kimura M (1980) A simple method for estimating evolutionary rates of base substitutions through comparative studies of nucleotide sequences. J Mol Evol 16:111–120
Kingdon J (2015) The kingdon field guide to African mammals, 2nd edn. Bloomsbury Publishing, London
Kingdon J, Hoffmann M (2013) Nesotragus moschatus suni. Mammals of Africa 6:214–219
Konaté S, Kampmann D (2010) Atlas de la Biodiversité de l’Afrique de l’Ouest. Tome III. In: BIOTA. Abidjan & Frankfurt/Main, (Côte Ivoire), 476p
Kpéra GN, Sinsin B, Mensah GA (2007) Mesures de conservation endogènes de la faune sauvage: cas des crocodiles du Bénin
Kumar S, Stecher G, Li M et al (2018) MEGA X: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis across computing platforms. Mol Biol Evol 35:1547
Lauginie F (2007) Conservation de la nature et aires protégées en Côte d’Ivoire. CEDA/NEI
Leprieur F, Albouy C, Bortoli JD et al (2012) Quantifying phylogenetic beta diversity: distinguishing between ‘true’ turnover of lineages and phylogenetic diversity gradients. PLoS ONE 7:e42760. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0042760
Linder JM, Oates JF (2011) Differential impact of bushmeat hunting on monkey species and implications for primate conservation in Korup National Park, Cameroon. Biol Conserv 144:738–745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2010.10.023
Liu L, Zhang J, Rheindt FE et al (2017) Genomic evidence reveals a radiation of placental mammals uninterrupted by the KPg boundary. Proc Natl Acad Sci 114:E7282–E7290. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1616744114
Marcon E (2015) Mesures de la biodiversité. PhD Thesis, Agro Paris Tech
de Merode E, Homewood K, Cowlishaw G (2004) The value of bushmeat and other wild foods to rural households living in extreme poverty in Democratic Republic of Congo. Biol Conserv 118:573–581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2003.10.005
Miantsa FO, Meutchieye F, Tsi EA et al (2015) Contribution du code barre d’adn à l’identification de la viande de brousse dans les marches du Cameroun. Bull Anim Health Prod Afr 63:279–285. https://doi.org/10.4314/bahpa.v63i4
Milner-Gulland EJ, Bennett EL (2003) Wild meat: the bigger picture. Trends Ecol Evol 18:351–357
Minhós T, Wallace E, Ferreira da Silva MJ et al (2013) DNA identification of primate bushmeat from urban markets in Guinea-Bissau and its implications for conservation. Biol Conserv 167:43–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2013.07.018
Monadjem A, Taylor P, Denys C, Cotterill F (2015) A biogeographic and taxonomic synthesis. In: Rodents of Sub-Saharan Africa. De Gruyter, Berlin, 1092p. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110301915
Myers N (1990) The biodiversity challenge: expanded hot-spots analysis. Environmentalist 10:243–256. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02239720
Nasi R, Fa JE (2015) The role of bushmeat in food security and nutrition. In: Reserarch Gate. XIV World Forestry Congress, Durban, South Africa, 7-11 Septembre 2015, 11p
Newing HS (1994) Behavioural ecology of duikers (Cephalophus spp.) in forest and secondary growth, Tai, Côte d’Ivoire. PhD thesis, University of Stirling, Ecosse, 257p
Ng EYK, Pang MP (2010) Comparison of nucleotide DNA alignment search programmes. Int J Med Eng Inform 2:163–176. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMEI.2010.031518
Nielsen MR, Pouliot M, Meilby H et al (2017) Global patterns and determinants of the economic importance of bushmeat. Biol Conserv 215:277–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2017.08.036
Ntie S, Johnston AR, Mickala P et al (2010) A molecular diagnostic for identifying central African forest artiodactyls from faecal pellets. Anim Conserv 13:80–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00303.x
Ogden R, Dawnay N, McEwing R (2009) Wildlife DNA forensics—bridging the gap between conservation genetics and law enforcement. Endanger Species Res 9:179–195. https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00144
Olayemi A, Oyeyiola A, Antunes A et al (2011) Contribution of DNA-typing to bushmeat surveys: assessment of a roadside market in south-western Nigeria. Wildl Res 38:696–716. https://doi.org/10.1071/WR11015
Olayemi A, Nicolas V, Hulselmans JAN et al (2012) Taxonomy of the African giant pouched rats (Nesomyidae: Cricetomys): molecular and craniometric evidence support an unexpected high species diversity. Zool J Linn Soc 165:700–719. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2012.00823.x
Pearce F (2005) The protein gap. Conserv Pract 6:117–123
Prendergast JR, Quinn RM, Lawton JH et al (1993) Rare species, the coincidence of diversity hotspots and conservation strategies. Nature 365:335–337. https://doi.org/10.1038/365335a0
Pruvot M, Khammavong K, Milavong P et al (2019) Toward a quantification of risks at the nexus of conservation and health: the case of bushmeat markets in Lao PDR. Sci Total Environ 676:732–745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.266
Puit M, Huart A, Leroy P, Nsangou IN (2004) Dynamique de la filière viande de brousse dans la partie continentale du Rio Muni en Guinée équatoriale. Tropicultura 22:204–210
Rambaut A, Drummond AJ, Xie D et al (2018) Posterior summarization in Bayesian phylogenetics using Tracer 1.7. Syst Biol 67:901
Redmond I, Aldred T, Jedamzik K, Westwood M (2006) Recipes for survival: controlling the bushmeat trade. Ape Alliance Report
Refisch J, Koné I (2005) Impact of commercial hunting on monkey populations in the Taï region, Côte d’Ivoire1. Biotropica 37:136–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7429.2005.03174.x
Robinson J, Bennett EL (2000) Hunting for sustainability in tropical forests. Columbia University Press, Columbia
Rozas J, Ferrer-Mata A, Sánchez-DelBarrio JC et al (2017) DnaSP 6: DNA sequence polymorphism analysis of large data sets. Mol Biol Evol 34:3299–3302. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msx248
Sabri Z (2020) Corrupting trade: an overview of corruption issues in illicit wildlife trade. American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)
Schilling MA, Estes AB, Eblate E et al (2020) Molecular species identification of bushmeat recovered from the Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania. PLoS ONE 15:e0237590. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237590
Sechrest W, Brooks TM, da Fonseca GAB et al (2002) Hotspots and the conservation of evolutionary history. Proc Natl Acad Sci 99:2067–2071. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.251680798
Shapcott A, Forster PI, Guymer GP et al (2015) Mapping biodiversity and setting conservation priorities for SE Queensland’s rainforests using DNA barcoding. PLoS ONE 10:e0122164. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0122164
Shirley MH, Oduro W, Beibro HY (2009) Conservation status of crocodiles in Ghana and Côte-d’Ivoire, West Africa. Oryx 43:136–145. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605309001586
Sillitoe P (2001) Hunting for conservation in the Papua New Guinea highlands. Ethnos 66:365–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/00141840120095140
Socolar JB, Gilroy JJ, Kunin WE, Edwards DP (2016) How should beta-diversity inform biodiversity conservation ? Trends Ecol Evol 31:67–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2015.11.005
Stadler T (2010) Sampling-through-time in birth–death trees. J Theor Biol 267:396–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2010.09.010
Triant DA, DeWoody JA (2007) The occurrence, detection, and avoidance of mitochondrial DNA translocations in mammalian systematics and phylogeography. J Mammal 88:908–920. https://doi.org/10.1644/06-MAMM-A-204R1.1
Vaidya G, Lohman DJ, Meier R (2011) SequenceMatrix: concatenation software for the fast assembly of multi-gene datasets with character set and codon information. Cladistics 27:171–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-0031.2010.00329.x
Valimahamed A, Lescuyer G, Nasi R (2017) Contributions de la chasse villageoise aux économies locales et nationales au Congo et en République démocratique du Congo. In: van Vliet N. (ed.), Nguinguiri J -C. (ed.), Cornelis D. (ed.), Le Bel S. (ed.). Communautés locales et utilisation durable de la faune en Afrique centrale, Bogor : FAO, CIFOR, CIRAD, pp 15–36
Webb CO, Ackerly DD, McPeek MA, Donoghue MJ (2002) Phylogenies and community ecology. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 33:475–505. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150448
Whittaker RH (1960) Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California. Ecol Monogr 30:279–338. https://doi.org/10.2307/1943563
Wilkie DS, Starkey M, Abernethy K et al (2005) Role of prices and wealth in consumer demand for bushmeat in Gabon, Central Africa. Conserv Biol 19:268–274. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00372.x
Willcox AS, Nambu DM (2007) Wildlife hunting practices and bushmeat dynamics of the Banyangi and Mbo people of Southwestern Cameroon. Biol Conserv 134:251–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2006.08.016
Willis AD (2019) Rarefaction, alpha diversity, and statistics. Front Microbiol 10:2407. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.02407
Wilson GP, Evans AR, Corfe IJ et al (2012) Adaptive radiation of multituberculate mammals before the extinction of dinosaurs. Nature 483:457–460. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10880
Wright JH, Priston NEC (2010) Hunting and trapping in Lebialem Division, Cameroon: bushmeat harvesting practices and human reliance. Endanger Species Res 11:1–12. https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00244
Yéboué FK, Koffi M, Sylla I et al (2020) Quantifying poached wildlife mammal species in Center-western region of Côte d’Ivoire. J Ecol Nat Environ 12:120–128. https://doi.org/10.5897/JENE2020.0848
Yéboué FK, Koffi M, Abe IA et al (2021) Genetic typing and in silico assignment of smoked and fresh bushmeat sold on markets and restaurants in west-central Côte d’Ivoire. Int J Genet Mol Biol 13:1–8. https://doi.org/10.5897/IJGMB2020.0208
Zanvo S, Djagoun CAMS, Azihou AF et al (2022) Can DNA help trace the local trade of pangolins? Conservation genetics of white-bellied pangolins from the Dahomey Gap (West Africa). BMC Ecol Evol 22:16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-022-01971-5
Acknowledgements
KJG and SGB received funding from the Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique (MESRS) of Côte d’Ivoire, as part of the Debt Reduction-Development Contracts (C2Ds) managed by the Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD). KJG received a grant through a PhD scholarship from "Appui à la Modernisation et à la Réforme des Universités et Grandes Ecoles de Côte d’Ivoire" (AMRUGE-CI_N°2). Field research and sampling was conducted under the authority of Ministère des Eaux et Forêts of Côte d'Ivoire, through Direction Générale des Forêts et de la Faune and Direction de la Faune et des Ressources Cynégétiques. PANGO-GO (ANR ANR-17-CE02-0001) and BUSHRISK (FCT IC&DT 02/SAICT/2017—n° 032130) supported the lab work. Investigations on the Brussels’ airport samples were supported by the Federal Public Service Health, Food Chain Safety and Environment of Brussels, Belgium (Cahier spécial des charges n° DG5/AMSZ/LF/16018). We are grateful to V. Benoît and L. Cervantes (Institut de Recherche Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale, Cergy Pontoise, France) for the samples seized at Roissy airport. We thank the plateau Biologie Moléculaire et Microbiologie (B2M) at Laboratoire d’Evolution et Diversité Biologique, Toulouse, and the GenSeq platform of LabEx CeMEB (Centre Méditerranéen Environnement et Biodiversité), Montpellier for the technical facilities and support. Two reviewers significantly improved the quality of the early draft of the manuscript.
Funding
KJG and SGB received funding from the Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique (MESRS) of Côte d’Ivoire, as part of the Debt Reduction-Development Contracts (C2Ds) managed by the Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD). KJG received a grant through a PhD scholarship from "Appui à la Modernisation et à la Réforme des Universités et Grandes Ecoles de Côte d’Ivoire" (AMRUGE-CI_N°2). Field research and sampling was conducted under the authority of Ministère des Eaux et Forêts of Côte d'Ivoire, through Direction Générale des Forêts et de la Faune and Direction de la Faune et des Ressources Cynégétiques. PANGO-GO (ANR ANR-17-CE02-0001) and BUSHRISK (FCT IC&DT 02/SAICT/2017—n° 032130) supported the lab work. Investigations on the Brussels’ airport samples were supported by the Federal Public Service Health, Food Chain Safety and Environment of Brussels, Belgium (Cahier spécial des charges n° DG5/AMSZ/LF/16018).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Conception and design of the study: Sery Gonedelé Bi, Philippe Gaubert. Data collection: Koffi Jules Gossé, Sery Gonedelé Bi, Bamba Kramoko, Anne-Lise Chaber. Lab work: Koffi Jules Gossé, Sery Gonedelé Bi, Fabienne Justy, Philippe Gaubert. Data analysis: Koffi Jules Gossé, Sery Gonedelé Bi, Philippe Gaubert. Funding: Sery Gonedelé Bi, Anne-Lise Chaber, Philippe Gaubert. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Koffi Jules Gossé, Sery Gonedelé Bi and Philippe Gaubert. All authors commented on the final draft of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Gossé, K.J., Gonedelé-Bi, S., Justy, F. et al. DNA-typing surveillance of the bushmeat in Côte d'Ivoire: a multi-faceted tool for wildlife trade management in West Africa. Conserv Genet 23, 1073–1088 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-022-01474-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-022-01474-2