Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Adolescents’ and Parents’ Expression of Empathy: A Social Neuroscience Perspective

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Contemporary Family Therapy Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Empathy is a critical component of emotional and moral development, which makes it an important construct to study within adolescence. However, few studies have examined the role of brain activity in the expression of empathy during adolescence. In order to add to the literature, the current study utilized social neuroscience theory as a lens to explore the relationships between brain activity, empathy, and parent–adolescent communication. 15 adolescent–mother–father triads participated in conversations while their brain activities were monitored through the use of an EEG. Their conversations were coded for empathy and positive and negative affect, and alpha asymmetry scores were created from the EEG data. After calculating Pearson correlation scores to test the relationships among empathy, alpha asymmetry, and affect, several statistically significant relationships were identified. For example, adolescents’ expression of empathy was positively correlated with their alpha asymmetry score. In addition, fathers’ empathic expression was negatively related to adolescents’ alpha asymmetry, therefore indicating a greater presence of alpha asymmetry in the right prefrontal cortex in adolescents. These findings suggest important links between brain activity, parent–adolescent communication, and adolescents’ empathic expression. Clinical implications and recommendations for future research are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adams, G. R., & Berzonsky, M. D. (2003). Blackwell handbook of adolescence. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. doi:10.1002/9780470756607.indsub.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakeman, R., & Gottman, J. M. (1986). Observing interaction: An introduction to sequential analysis. New York: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511527685.

    Google Scholar 

  • BrainMaster Technologies, Inc. (2009). http://www.brainm.com/generalinfo/electrodeuse/eegbands/1020/1020A02.gif

  • Brunelle, N., Tremblay, J., Blanchette-Martin, N., Gendron, A., & Tessier, M. (2014). Relationships between drugs and delinquency in adolescence: Influence of gender and victimization experiences. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 23(1), 19–28. doi:10.1080/1067828X.2012.735488.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bylund, C. L., & Makoul, G. (2005). Examining empathy in medical encounters: An observational study using the empathic communication coding system. Health Communication, 18(2), 123–140. doi:10.1207/s15327027hc1802_2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carr, L., Iacoboni, M., Dubeau, M. C., Mazziotta, J. C., & Lenzi, G. L. (2003). Neural mechanisms of empathy in humans: A relay from neural systems for imitation to limbic areas. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences USA, 100, 5497–5502. doi:10.1073/pnas.0935845100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chow, C., Ruhl, H., & Buhrmester, D. (2013). The mediating role of interpersonal competence between adolescents’ empathy and friendship quality: A dyadic approach. Journal of Adolescence, 36(1), 191–200. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.10.004.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coan, J. A., & Allen, J. J. B. (2004). Frontal EEG asymmetry as a moderator and mediator of emotion. Biology Psychology, 67, 7–49. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.03.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, R. J. (1995). Cerebral asymmetry, emotion, and affective style. In R. J. Davidson & K. Hudgahl (Eds.), Brain asymmetry (pp. 361–387). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Kemp, R. T., Overbeek, G., de Wied, M., Engels, R. E., & Scholte, R. J. (2007). Early adolescent empathy, parental support, and antisocial behavior. The Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development, 168(1), 5–18. doi:10.3200/GNTP.168.1.5-18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Wied, M., van Boxtel, A., Matthys, W., & Meeus, W. (2012). Verbal, facial and autonomic responses to empathy-eliciting film clips by disruptive male adolescents with high versus low callous-unemotional traits. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(2), 211–223. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9557-8.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Decety, J., & Lamm, C. (2006). Human empathy through the lens of social neuroscience. The Scientific World Journal, 6, 1146–1163. doi:10.1100/tsw.2006.221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dennis, M., Simic, N., Agostino, A., Taylor, H., Bigler, E. D., Rubin, K., & Yeates, K. (2013). Irony and empathy in children with traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 19(3), 338–348. doi:10.1017/S1355617712001440.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, L. M., Fagundes, C. P., & Butterworth, M. R. (2012). Attachment style, vagal tone, and empathy during mother–adolescent interactions. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(1), 165–184. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00762.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dymond, R. E. (1949). A scale for measurement of empathic ability. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 14, 127–133. doi:10.1037/h0061728.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N. (2000). Emotion, regulation, and moral development. Annual Review of Psychology. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.665.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., & McNally, S. (1993). Socialization and mothers’ and adolescents’ empathy related characteristics. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 3(2), 171–191. doi:10.1207/s15327795jra0302_4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg-Berg, N., & Mussen, P. (1978). Empathy and moral development in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 14(2), 185–186. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.14.2.185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Enticott, P. G., Johnston, P. J., Herring, S. E., Hoy, K. E., & Fitzgerald, P. B. (2008). Mirror neuron activation is associated with facial emotion processing. Neuropsychologia, 46, 2851–2854. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.04.022.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fair Worthen, M. (2012). Gender differences in delinquency in early, middle, and late adolescence: An exploration of parent and friend relationships. Deviant Behavior, 33(4), 282–307. doi:10.1080/01639625.2011.573421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gottman, J. (1997). Raising an emotionally intelligent child. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottman, J. (2001). Meta-emotion, children’s emotional intelligence, and buffering children from marital conflict. In C. D. Ryff & B. H. Singer (Eds.), Emotion, social relationships, and health (pp. 23–40). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195145410.001.0001.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gottman, J. M., & Krokoff, L. J. (1989). Marital interaction and satisfaction: A longitudinal view. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 47–52. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.57.1.47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gottman, J. M., McCoy, K., Coan, J., & Collier, H. (1996). The specific affect coding system for observing in marital and family interaction. In J. M. Gottman (Ed.), What predicts divorce: The measures. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gutsell, J. N., & Inzlicht, M. (2012). Intergroup differences in the sharing of emotive states: Neural evidence of an empathy gap. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7(5), 596–603. doi:10.1093/scan/nsr035.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harmon-Jones, E. (2003). Clarifying the emotive functions of asymmetrical frontal cortical activity. Psychophysiology, 40(6), 838–848. doi:10.1111/1469-8986.00121.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harmon-Jones, E. (2004). Contributions from research on anger and cognitive dissonance to understanding the motivational functions of asymmetric frontal brain activity. Biological Psychology, 67, 51–76. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.03.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harmon-Jones, E., & Allen, J. B. (1997). Behavioral activation sensitivity and resting frontal EEG asymmetry: Covariation of putative indicators related to risk for mood disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 159–163. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.106.1.159.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harmon-Jones, E., Gable, P. A., & Peterson, C. K. (2010). The role of asymmetric frontal cortical activity in emotion-related phenomena: A review and update. Biological Psychology, 84, 451–462. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.08.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harmon-Jones, E., & Peterson, C. K. (2009). Electroencephalographic methods in social and personality psychology. In E. Harmon-Jones & J. S. Beer (Eds.), Methods in social neuroscience (pp. 170–197). New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heller, S., Robinson, L. C., Henry, C. S., & Plunkett, S. W. (2007). Gender differences in adolescent perceptions of parent–adolescent openness in communication and adolescent empathy. Marriage & Family Review, 40(4), 103–122. doi:10.1300/J002v40n04_06.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huff, N. (2013). Positive affect, hemispheric lateralization, and relational problem-solving: A mixed-methods exploration of parent–adolescent communication. Theses and Dissertations—Family Sciences. Paper 6. Retrieved from http://uknowledge.uky.edu/hes_etds/6

  • Huff, N., Werner-Wilson, R., & Kimberly, C. (2014). Electrical brain activity, family functioning, and parent–adolescent conflict communication. Contemporary Family Therapy, 36(3), 409–416. doi:10.1007/s10591-014-9307-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jasper, H. H. (1958). The ten–twenty electrode system of the International Federation. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 10, 371–375. Retrieved from. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00134694

  • Keiley, M. K., & Seery, B. L. (2001). Affect regulation and attachment strategies of adjudicated and non-adjudicated adolescents and their parents. Contemporary Family Therapy: An International Journal, 23(3), 343–366. doi:10.1023/A:1011187117365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, K., Lepo, A. W., & Frinzi, C. (2011). Empathy and nursing education from mirror neurons to the experience of empathy: 21st century nursing education. International Journal for Human Caring, 15(4), 22–28. Retrieved from https://iafhc.wildapricot.org/page-18066

  • Keysers, C., & McKay, L. S. (2011). How to make social neuroscience social. Psychological Inquiry, 22(3), 210–216. doi:10.1080/1047840X.2011.567960.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kimberly, C., Werner-Wilson, R., Parker, T., & Lianekhammy, J. (2014). Alpha to omega: A neurological analysis of marital conflict in a pilot study. Contemporary Family Therapy: An International Journal, 36(1), 83–92. doi:10.1007/s10591-013-9296-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, D. B., Mara, C. A., & DeCicco, T. L. (2012). Connecting the spiritual and emotional intelligences: Confirming an intelligence criterion and assessing the role of empathy. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 31(1), 11–20. Retrieved from. http://www.transpersonalstudies.org/

  • McMahon, S. D., Wernsman, J., & Parnes, A. L. (2006). Understanding prosocial behavior: The impact of empathy and gender among African American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39(1), 135–137. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.10.008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mehrabian, A., Young, A. L., & Sato, S. (1988). Emotional empathy and associated individual differences. Current Psychology: A Journal for Diverse Perspectives on Diverse Psychological Issues, 7(3), 221–240. doi:10.1007/BF02686670.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, M. L., Masten, C. L., Ma, Y., Wang, C., Shi, Z., Eisenberger, N. I., & Han, S. (2013). Empathy for the social suffering of friends and strangers recruits distinct patterns of brain activation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 8(4), 446–454. doi:10.1093/scan/nss019.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mind Media, The Netherlands. http://www.mindmedia.nl/english/nexus32.php

  • Robins, R. W., Fraley, R. C., & Krueger, R. F. (2007). Handbook of research methods in personality psychology. New York: The Guilford Press. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.01133_6.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, C. R. (1980). A way of being. New York: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9(3), 185–211. doi:10.2190/DUGG-P24E-52WK-6CDG.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulman, G. L. (1985). Treatment of the disturbed adolescent: A family system approach. International Journal of Family Therapy, 7(1), 11–24. doi:10.1007/BF00924018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shomaker, L. B., & Furman, W. (2009). Parent-adolescent relationship qualities, internal working models, and attachment styles as predictors of adolescents’ interactions with friends. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 26(5), 579–603. doi:10.1177/0265407509354441.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, D. (2010). The mindful therapist: A clinician’s guide to mindsight and neural integration. New York, NY: Mind Your Brain Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, D. (2014). Brainstorm: The power and purpose of the teenage brain. New York, NY: Tarcher.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L. (2008). A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk taking. Developmental Review, 28, 78–106. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.002.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stotland, E. (1969). Exploratory investigations of empathy. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 4, 271–314. doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60080-5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, T. J., Deiss, S. R., Cauwenberghs, G., & Jung, T. P. (2007). A low-noise low-power EEG acquisition node for scalable brain–machine interfaces. In Microtechnologies for the New Millennium (pp. 659203–659203). International Society for Optics and Photonics.

  • Sutton, S. K., & Davidson, R. J. (1997). Prefrontal brain asymmetry: A biological substrate of the behavioral approach and inhibition systems. Psychological Science, 8, 204–210. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00413.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tullett, A. M., Harmon-Jones, E., & Inzlicht, M. (2012). Right frontal cortical asymmetry predicts empathic reactions: Support for a link between withdrawal motivation and empathy. Psychophysiology, 49(8), 1145–1153. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2012.01395.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Graaff, J., Branje, S., De Wied, M., & Meeus, W. (2012). The moderating role of empathy in the association between parental support and adolescent aggressive and delinquent behavior. Aggressive Behavior, 38(5), 368–377. doi:10.1002/ab.21435.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Honk, J., & Schutter, D. J. L. G. (2006). From affective valence to motivational direction: The frontal asymmetry of emotion revisited. Psychological Science, 17, 963–965. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01813.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Viera, A. J., & Garrett, J. M. (2005). Understanding interobserver agreement: The kappa statistic. Family Medicine, 37(5), 360–363.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wacker, J., Chavanon, M.-L., & Stemmler, G. (2010). Resting EEG signatures of agentic extraversion: New results and meta-analytic integration. Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 167–179. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.12.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wagaman, M. (2011). Social empathy as a framework for adolescent empowerment. Journal of Social Service Research, 37(3), 278–293. doi:10.1080/01488376.2011.564045.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waldinger, R. J., Hauser, S. T., Schulz, M. S., Allen, J. P., & Crowell, J. A. (2004). Reading others’ emotions: The role of intuitive judgments in predicting marital satisfaction, quality, and stability. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 58–71. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.18.1.58.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Werner-Wilson, R. J., Lianekhammy, J., Frey, L. M., Parker, T. S., Wood, N. D., Kimberly, C., et al. (2011). Alpha asymmetry in female military spouses following deployment. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 23, 202–217. doi:10.1080/08952833.2011.604534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whittle, S., Yap, M. H., Yücel, M., Fornito, A., Simmons, J. G., Barrett, A., & Allen, N. B. (2008). Prefrontal and amygdala volumes are related to adolescents’ affective behaviors during parent–adolescent interactions. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105(9), 3652–3657. doi:10.1073/pnas.0709815105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yoo, H., Feng, X., & Day, R. D. (2013). Adolescents’ empathy and prosocial behavior in the family context: A longitudinal study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,. doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9900-6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Family Sciences, University of Kentucky, 315 Funkhouser Building, Lexington, KY, 40506, USA

    Jillian M. Hawks, Trent S. Parker, Ronald Werner-Wilson & Joann Lianekhammy

  2. Department of Youth, Family, and Community Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA

    Nichole Huff

Authors
  1. Jillian M. Hawks
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Trent S. Parker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ronald Werner-Wilson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Nichole Huff
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Joann Lianekhammy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jillian M. Hawks.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hawks, J.M., Parker, T.S., Werner-Wilson, R. et al. Adolescents’ and Parents’ Expression of Empathy: A Social Neuroscience Perspective. Contemp Fam Ther 37, 142–152 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-015-9334-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-015-9334-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation