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Early Life Characteristics and Neurodevelopmental Phenotypes in the Mount Sinai Children’s Environmental Health Center

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Abstract

Neurodevelopmental outcomes including behavior, executive functioning, and IQ exhibit complex correlational structures, although they are often treated as independent in etiologic studies. We performed a principal components analysis of the behavioral assessment system for children, the behavior rating inventory of executive functioning, and the Wechsler scales of intelligence in a prospective birth cohort, and estimated associations with early life characteristics. We identified seven factors: (1) impulsivity and externalizing, (2) executive functioning, (3) internalizing, (4) perceptual reasoning, (5) adaptability, (6) processing speed, and (7) verbal intelligence. Prenatal fish consumption, maternal education, preterm birth, and the home environment were important predictors of various neurodevelopmental factors. Although maternal smoking was associated with more adverse externalizing, executive functioning, and adaptive composite scores in our sample, of the orthogonally-rotated factors, smoking was only associated with the impulsivity and externalizing factor (\(\hat{\beta}\) − 0.82, 95% CI − 1.42, − 0.23). These differences may be due to correlations among outcomes that were accounted for by using a phenotypic approach. Dimension reduction may improve upon traditional approaches by accounting for correlations among neurodevelopmental traits.

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Funding

This work was supported by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences/U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Children’s Center Grants ES09584 and R827039, the New York Community Trust, and the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/Association of Teachers of Preventive Medicine. M. Furlong was supported by NIEHS institutional training Grant T32ES007018.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

    Melissa Furlong, Julie L. Daniels, Lawrence S. Engel & Stephanie M. Engel

  2. Department of Statistical Science and Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA

    Amy H. Herring

  3. Department of Psychology and Neuroscience & FPG Child Development Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

    Barbara D. Goldman

  4. Department of Preventive Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA

    Mary S. Wolff

  5. Department of Community, Environment, and Policy, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA

    Melissa Furlong

Authors
  1. Melissa Furlong
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  2. Amy H. Herring
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  3. Barbara D. Goldman
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  4. Julie L. Daniels
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  5. Mary S. Wolff
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  6. Lawrence S. Engel
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  7. Stephanie M. Engel
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Correspondence to Melissa Furlong.

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Appendices

Appendix 1

Origination and follow-up of participants included in principal components analysis and regression analyses

figure a

.

Appendix 2

Instruments included in principal components analysis of intelligence, executive functioning and behavior in the Mount Sinai Children’s Environmental Health Study.

Instrument

Scales

Age assessed, N children

Wechsler preschool and primary scales of intelligence (WPPSI-III)

Verbal IQ (subtest: vocabulary)

Performance IQ (subtests: block design, matrix reasoning, picture concepts)

Processing speed index (subtests: symbol search, coding)

Full scale IQ

6 years (n = 162)

Wechsler intelligence scale for children (WISC-IV)

Verbal IQ (subtests: vocabulary)

Perceptual reasoning (subtests: block design, matrix reasoning, picture concepts)

Processing speed index (subtests: symbol search, coding)

Full scale IQ

7–9 years (n = 161)

Behavior rating inventory of executive functioning (BRIEF)

Behavioral regulation index (subtests: inhibit, shift, emotional control)

Metacognition index (initiate, working memory, plan/organize, Organization of materials, monitor)

Global executive composite

4–9 years (N = 242)

Behavioral assessment scale for children (BASC)

Externalizing problems (aggression, hyperactivity, conduct problems)

Internalizing problems (anxiety, depression, somatization,)

Adaptive skills composite (Adaptability, leadership, social skills)

Other problems (atypicality, withdrawal)

Behavioral symptoms index (aggression, hyperactivity, anxiety, Depression, attention problems, atypicality)

4–9 years (N = 238)

  1. 210 participants had the BASC, the BRIEF, and either the WPPSI-III or the WISC-IV

Appendix 3

Description of home subscales.

The HOME subscales include (1) involvement, which measures how an adult interacts physically with the child (sample items include: parent keeps child within visual range, talks to child while doing work); (2) learning Materials, which measures whether a child has appropriate play materials at home and elsewhere (sample items include: child has one or more large muscle activity toys); (3) organization, which measures how a child’s time is organized outside the house and what personal space looks like (sample items include: safe play environment, regular caregivers); (4) acceptance, which measures how the adult disciplines the child (sample items include: parent does not shout at child during visit, parent not overly restrictive of child’s movements), (5) responsivity, which measures the emotional and verbal sensitivity and responsivity of parent to the child (sample items include: mother caresses or kisses child at least once during visit), and (6) variety, which measures opportunities for variety in daily stimulation (sample items include: father provides some caregiving every day, family visits or receives visits from relatives approximately once a month).

Appendix 4

Bivariate associations between early life characteristics and neurodevelopmental factors in the mount sinai children’s environmental health center.

 

N

Factor 1

Impulsivity and externalizing β (95% CI)

Factor 2

Executive functioning β (95% CI)

Factor 3

Internalizing β (95% CI)

Factor 4

Perceptual reasoning β (95% CI)

Factor 5

Adaptability β (95% CI)

Factor 6

Processing speed β (95% CI)

Factor 7

Verbal intelligence β (95% CI)

Maternal marital status at follow up

 Married

61

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

 Living with partner

39

0.12 (− 0.28, 0.51)

0.20 (− 0.20, 0.61)

0.11 (− 0.30, 0.51)

− 0.29 (− 0.69, 0.10)

− 0.25 (− 0.64, 0.14)

0.20 (− 0.20, 0.59)

− 0.48 (− 0.87, − 0.08)

 Single/divorced/ widowed

99

− 0.27 (− 0.58, 0.05)

0.07 (− 0.25, 0.39)

− 0.02 (− 0.34, 0.30)

− 0.41 (− 0.73, − 0.10)

− 0.46 (− 0.76, − 0.15)

0.09 (− 0.23, 0.40)

− 0.33 (− 0.65, − 0.02)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.07

0.61

0.80

0.04

0.02

0.62

0.04

Maternal IQ

       

 IQ < 100

91

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

 IQ ≥ 100

45

0.12 (− 0.24, 0.48)

− 0.49 (− 0.85, − 0.13)

− 0.04 (− 0.38, 0.30)

0.54 (0.19, 0.89)

0.18 (− 0.18, 0.53)

0.06 (− 0.28, 0.39)

0.80 (0.51, 1.10)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.50

0.01

0.82

< 0.01

0.32

0.74

< 0.01

Maternal education at follow up

      

 High school or less

84

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

 Some college

81

− 0.06 (− 0.36, 0.24)

− 0.26 (− 0.56, 0.04)

0.15 (− 0.16, 0.45)

0.04 (− 0.25, 0.33)

0.07 (− 0.23, 0.37)

− 0.15 (− 0.46, 0.15)

0.55 (0.28, 0.82)

 Bachelor’s degree

45

− 0.16 (− 0.52, 0.21)

− 0.33 (− 0.69, 0.03)

0.18 (− 0.18, 0.54)

0.75 (0.40, 1.09)

0.46 (0.11, 0.82)

0.05 (− 0.31, 0.41)

1.18 (0.85, 1.50)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.70

0.11

0.51

< 0.01

0.03

0.47

< 0.01

Maternal age at delivery

      

 < 20

98

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

 20–25

55

− 0.11 (− 0.44, 0.22)

0.01 (− 0.32, 0.34)

0.13 (− 0.20, 0.46)

0.09 (− 0.22, 0.40)

0.06 (− 0.26, 0.38)

− 0.22 (− 054, 0.11)

0.28 (− 0.04, 0.59)

 > 25

57

− 0.18 (− 0.50, 0.15)

− 0.31 (− 0.63, 0.02)

− 0.05 (− 0.38, 0.27)

0.70 (0.39, 1.01)

0.50 (0.18, 0.82)

− 0.16 (− 0.48, 0.17)

0.74 (0.43, 1.05)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.54

0.13

0.61

< 0.01

< 0.01

0.38

< 0.01

Maternal race

      

 Black or other race

57

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

 White

31

0.01 (− 0.43, 0.44)

− 0.33 (− 0.76, 0.10)

0.07 (− 0.37, 0.50)

1.14 (0.74, 1.55)

0.30 (− 0.13, 0.74)

− 0.01 (− 0.45, 0.43)

1.05 (0.65, 1.44)

 Hispanic

122

0.22 (− 0.09, 0.53)

− 0.28 (− 0.59, 0.03)

− 0.04 (− 0.35, 0.28)

0.14 (− 0.15, 0.43)

− 0.00 (− 0.31, 0.31)

− 0.00 (− 0.31, 0.31)

− 0.25 (− 0.53, 0.03)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.29

0.16

0.87

< 0.01

0.29

0.99

< 0.01

Maternal smoking during pregnancy

      

 None

134

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

 Any

28

− 0.53 (− 0.91, − 0.15)

− 0.31 (− 0.73, 0.10)

0.26 (− 0.14, 0.66)

0.02 (− 0.38, 0.43)

− 0.18 (− 0.59, 0.23)

− 0.23 (− 0.62, 0.17)

− 0.06 (− 0.44, 0.33)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.01

0.14

0.20

0.91

0.39

0.26

0.77

Maternal alcohol use during pregnancy

      

 None

132

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

 Any

29

0.08 (− 0.32, 0.48)

− 0.07 (− 0.50, 0.35)

0.11 (− 0.30, 0.52)

0.68 (0.28, 1.09)

0.07 (− 0.35, 0.48)

− 0.01 (− 0.41, 0.39)

0.74 (0.36, 1.12)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.68

0.73

0.61

< 0.01

0.74

0.96

< 0.01

Maternal canned fish consumption during pregnancy

     

 < 1 times per week

145

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

 1 or more times per week

22

− 0.16 (− 0.59, 0.27)

− 0.27 (− 0.73, 0.18)

0.24 (− 0.20, 0.68)

0.83 (0.40, 1.26)

0.36 (− 0.09, 0.80)

− 0.17 (− 0.61, 0.27)

0.32 (− 0.10, 0.74)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.47

0.24

0.29

< 0.01

0.12

0.45

0.14

 Child sex

       

 Male

100

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

 Female

105

0.35 (0.08, 0.62)

− 0.11 (− 0.39, 0.16)

− 0.28 (− 0.55, 0.00)

− 0.27 (− 0.54, 0.00)

0.42 (0.15, 0.68)

0.40 (0.13, 0.67)

− 0.12 (− 0.39, 0.16)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.01

0.41

0.05

0.05

< 0.01

< 0.01

0.40

Gestational age

      

 Term birth

150

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

 Preterm

60

0.28 (− 0.02, 0.57)

− 0.13 (− 0.43, 0.17)

− 0.34 (− 0.64, − 0.05)

− 0.19 (− 0.49, 0.10)

− 0.13 (− 0.43, 0.17)

− 0.15 (− 0.45, 0.14)

− 0.46 (− 0.75, − 0.16)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.07

0.38

0.02

0.20

0.39

0.31

< 0.01

Head circumference

      

 Centimeters, continuous

162

− 0.04 (− 0.14, 0.06)

− 0.12 (− 0.22, − 0.02)

0.04 (− 0.06, 0.14)

0.15 (0.05, 0.24)

0.00 (− 0.10, 0.10)

0.07 (− 0.03, 0.17)

0.06 (− 0.03, 0.16)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.43

0.02

0.47

< 0.01

0.99

0.17

0.19

Birth weight

      

 < median (< 3270 g)

76

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

 ≥ Median (≥ 3270 g)

86

− 0.25 (− 0.55, 0.04)

− 0.10 (− 0.41, 0.22)

0.08 (− 0.23, 0.39)

0.21 (− 0.09, 0.52)

0.20 (− 0.11, 0.50)

0.19 (− 0.11, 0.49)

− 0.12 (− 0.41, 0.17)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.10

0.54

0.61

0.17

0.21

0.21

0.41

Birth length

        

 < Median (< 51 cm)

75

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

Referent

 ≥ Median(≥ 51 cm)

85

− 0.22 (− 0.52, 0.08)

− 0.17 (− 0.49, 0.14)

0.33 (0.02, 0.63)

0.17 (− 0.14, 0.48)

0.05 (− 0.27, 0.36)

− 0.02 (− 0.32, 0.29)

− 0.14 (− 0.44, 0.15)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.15

0.29

0.03

0.29

0.77

0.90

0.34

HOME observation for measurement of the environment scores

    

 Overall score continuous

156

0.00 (− 0.02, 0.03)

0.01 (− 0.01, 0.04)

0.01 (− 0.02, 0.04)

0.01 (− 0.02, 0.04)

0.04 (0.01, 0.06)

0.02 (0.00, 0.05)

0.01 (− 0.01, 0.04)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.94

0.37

0.48

0.44

< 0.01

0.07

0.33

 Responsivity ordinal categorical

156

0.04 (− 0.14, 0.22)

− 0.01 (− 0.20, 0.18)

0.12 (− 0.07, 0.30)

0.05 (− 0.14, 0.23)

0.13 (− 0.05, 0.31)

0.01 (− 0.17, 0.19)

0.15 (− 0.03, 0.32)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.64

0.89

0.21

0.63

0.15

0.88

0.09

 Involvement ordinal categorical

156

0.03 (− 0.16, 0.23)

− 0.04 (− 0.25, 0.16)

0.04 (− 0.16, 0.24)

0.22 (0.02, 0.42)

0.23 (0.04, 0.42)

0.09 (− 0.10, 0.29)

0.13 (− 0.06, 0.32)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.76

0.68

0.70

0.03

0.02

0.36

0.19

 Organization Ordinal categorical

156

− 0.11 (− 0.29, 0.07)

0.28 (0.09, 0.47)

0.21 (0.02, 0.39)

0.02 (− 0.17, 0.20)

0.28 (0.10, 0.46)

− 0.01 (− 0.19, 0.17)

0.00 (− 0.18, 0.18)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.24

< 0.01

0.03

0.86

< 0.01

0.94

0.99

 Learning materials ordinal categorical

156

0.01 (− 0.18, 0.20)

0.06 (− 0.14, 0.26)

0.11 (− 0.08, 0.31)

0.16 (− 0.03, 0.36)

0.06 (− 0.13, 0.26)

0.16 (− 0.03, 0.35)

0.22 (0.04, 0.41)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.89

0.54

0.26

0.10

0.52

0.10

0.02

 Acceptance ordinal categorical

156

0.07 (− 0.13, 0.26)

− 0.03 (− 0.24, 0.17)

0.01 (− 0.19, 0.21)

0.03 (− 0.17, 0.23)

0.18 (− 0.02, 0.37)

0.10 (− 0.10, 0.29)

0.11 (− 0.08, 0.30)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.51

0.77

0.95

0.79

0.08

0.32

0.25

 Variety ordinal categorical

156

0.00 (− 0.20, 0.19)

0.21 (0.00, 0.42)

0.16 (− 0.04, 0.36)

0.13 (− 0.08, 0.33)

0.22 (0.03, 0.42)

0.09 (− 0.11, 0.29)

0.10 (− 0.09, 0.30)

 Pr > χ2

 

0.97

0.05

0.12

0.22

0.03

0.37

0.31

  1. Characteristics presented for all participants who were included in the principal components analysis, where data is available
  2. Higher factor scores indicate better outcomes (e.g., less impulsivity/internalizing, lower levels of anxiety/internalizing behaviors, higher verbal intelligence)

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Furlong, M., Herring, A.H., Goldman, B.D. et al. Early Life Characteristics and Neurodevelopmental Phenotypes in the Mount Sinai Children’s Environmental Health Center. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 49, 534–550 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-017-0773-5

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-017-0773-5

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