Abstract
Aquazol [poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)] is a widely used polymeric material for conservation because of its high reversibility and excellent compatibility with various types of material. However, it is hydrophilic and not recommended for use in weight-bearing applications. The objective of this study is to introduce cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) into Aquazol to evaluate the physicomechanical properties of the resultant composites. Several nanocellulose addition formulations involving two types of nanocellulose were designed at various addition levels. Water sorption investigations revealed that the addition of CNCs or CNFs reduced the maximum moisture content of the resultant composites when compared to the unfilled Aquazol. The tensile test results showed that the critical addition level of CNF (2 wt%) is lower than that of CNC (10 wt%) for the nanocellulose to start acting effectively as a mechanically reinforcing agent. Notably, compared with using a single type of nanocellulose for reinforcement, greater reinforcement was observed when both CNCs and CNFs were combinedly added. Field emission scanning electron microscopy indicated that these strong reinforcement outcomes were probably a result of branch-like structures forming among the mixed fillers. The addition of nanocellulose in general resulted in composites having marginally lower thermal stability and optical transparency. In this study, we demonstrated the increased retention of mechanical properties in variously filled composites exposed to anticipated service conditions (55% RH; 23 °C). Crucially, the discoveries in this study indicate that mixed CNC and CNF fillers could be a reasonable option for future applications where lower levels of nanocellulose are desired for optical transparency considerations.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles and news from researchers in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.Change history
02 March 2021
A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-021-03742-9
References
Agarwal BD, Broutman LJ (1990) Analysis and performance of fiber composites. Wiley, New York, NY
Arslanoglu J (2003) Evaluation of the use of Aquazol as an adhesive in paintings conservation. WAAC Newsl 25(2):12–18
Arslanoglu J (2004) Aquazol as used in conservation practice. WAAC Newsl 26(1):10–15
Azeredo HMC, Rosa MF, Mattoso LHC (2017) Nanocellulose in bio-based food packaging applications. Ind Crops Prod 97:664–671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.03.013
Bilbao-Sainz C, Bras J, Williams T, Sénechal T, Orts W (2011) HPMC reinforced with different cellulose nano-particles. Carbohydr Polym 86:1549–1557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.06.060
Cataldi A (2015) Micro- and nanostructured polymeric materials for art protection and restoration. Dissertation, University of Trento
Cataldi A, Dorigato A, Deflorian F, Pegoretti A (2013) Thermo-mechanical properties of innovative microcrystalline cellulose filled composites for art protection and restoration. J Mater Sci 49:2035–2044. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-013-7892-6
Cataldi A, Berglund L, Deflorian F, Pegoretti A (2016) A comparison between micro- and nanocellulose-filled composite adhesives for oil paintings restoration. Nanocomposites 1:195–203. https://doi.org/10.1080/20550324.2015.1117239
Chen W, Yu H, Liu Y, Chen P, Zhang M, Hai Y (2011) Individualization of cellulose nanofibers from wood using high-intensity ultrasonication combined with chemical pretreatments. Carbohydr Polym 83:1804–1811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.10.040
Chirayil CJ, Joy J, Mathew L, Koetz J, Thomas S (2014) Nanofibril reinforced unsaturated polyester nanocomposites: morphology, mechanical and barrier properties, viscoelastic behavior and polymer chain confinement. Ind Crops Prod 56:246–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.03.005
Chiu TT, Thill BP, Fairchok WJ (1986) Poly (2-ethyl-2-oxazoline): a new water-and organic-soluble adhesive. ACS Publications, Washington, DC, pp 425–433. https://doi.org/10.1021/ba-1986-0213.ch023
Cui YH, Wang XX, Xu Q, Xia ZZ (2010) Research on moisture absorption behavior of recycled polypropylene matrix wood plastic composites. J Thermoplast Compos Mater 24:65–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0892705710376470
Cox HL (1952) The elasticity and strength of paper and other fibrous materials. Br J Appl Phys 3:72–79
Dhar P, Bhardwaj U, Kumar A, Katiyar V (2015) Poly (3-hydroxybutyrate)/cellulose nanocrystal films for food packaging applications: barrier and migration studies. Polym Eng Sci 55:2388–2395. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.24127
Dufresne A (2012) Nanocellulose. From nature to high performance tailored materials. Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin
Dufresne A (2013) Nanocellulose: a new ageless bionanomaterial. Mater Today 16(6):220–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2013.06.004
Dufresne A (2018) Cellulose nanomaterials as green nanoreinforcements for polymer nanocomposites. Philos Trans A Math Phys Eng Sci. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2017.0040
Dufresne A, Dupeyre D, Vignon MR (2000) Cellulose microfibrils from potato tuber cells: processing and characterization of starch–cellulose microfibril composites. J Appl Polym Sci 76:2080–2092
Ebert B, Singer B, Grimaldi N (2012) Aquazol as a consolidant for matte paint on Vietnamese paintings. J Inst Conserv 35(1):62–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/19455224.2012.672813
Farahbakhsh N, Venditti RA, Jur JS (2014) Mechanical and thermal investigation of thermoplastic nanocomposite films fabricated using micro- and nano-sized fillers from recycled cotton T-shirts. Cellulose 21:2743–2755. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-014-0285-4
Gao C, Wan Y, He F, Liang H, Luo H, Han J (2011) Mechanical, moisture absorption, and photodegradation behaviors of bacterial cellulose nanofiber-reinforced unsaturated polyester composites. Adv Polym Technol 30:249–256. https://doi.org/10.1002/adv.20220
Henriksson M, Berglund LA, Isaksson P, Lindström T, Nishino T (2008) Cellulose nanopaper structures of high toughness. Biomacromolecules 9(6):1579–1585. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm800038n
Hietala M, Mathew AP, Oksman K (2013) Bionanocomposites of thermoplastic starch and cellulose nanofibers manufactured using twin-screw extrusion. Eur Polym J 49:950–956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2012.10.016
Iwamoto S, Nakagaito AN, Yano H (2007) Nano-fibrillation of pulp fibers for the processing of transparent nanocomposites. Appl Phys 89:461–466. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-007-4175-6
Julien S, Chornet E, Overend RP (1993) Influence of acid pretreatment (H2SO4, HCl, HNO3) on reaction selectivity in the vacuum pyrolysis of cellulose. J Anal Appl Pyrol 27(1):25–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-2370(93)80020-Z
Kaushik A, Singh M, Verma G (2010) Green nanocomposites based on thermoplastic starch and steam exploded cellulose nanofibrils from wheat straw. Carbohydr Polym 82:337–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.04.063
Kim DY, Nishiyama Y, Wada M, Kuga S (2001) High-yield carbonization of cellulose by sulfuric acid impregnation. Cellulose 8:29–33. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016621103245
Kiziltas A, Han Y, Gardner DJ, Yang H (2011) Dynamic mechanical behavior and thermal properties of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)-filled nylon 6 composites. Thermochim Acta 519:38–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2011.02.026
Krieg A, Weber C, Hoogenboom R, Becer CR, Schubert US (2012) Block copolymers of poly (2-oxazoline) s and poly (meth) acrylates: a crossover between cationic ring-opening polymerization (CROP) and reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT). ACS Macro Lett 1(6):776–779. https://doi.org/10.1021/mz300128p
La Nasa J, Di Marco F, Bernazzani L, Duce C, Spepi A, Ubaldi V, Degano I, Orsini S, Legnaioli S, Tiné MR, De Luca D, Modugno F (2017) Aquazol as a binder for retouching paints. An evaluation through analytical pyrolysis and thermal analysis. Polym Degrad Stab 144:508–519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2017.09.007
Lavoratti A, Scienza LC, Zattera AJ (2016) Dynamic-mechanical and thermomechanical properties of cellulose nanofiber/polyester resin composites. Carbohydr Polym 136:955–963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.10.008
Lenz J, Schurz J, Eichinger D (1994) Properties and structure of lyocell and viscose-type fibres in the swollen state. Lenzing Ber 74:19–25
Moon RJ, Martini A, Nairn J, Simonsen J, Youngblood J (2011) Cellulose nanomaterials review: structure, properties and nanocomposites. Chem Soc Rev 40(7):3941–3994. https://doi.org/10.1039/C0CS00108B
Nechyporchuk O, Belgacem MN, Bras J (2016) Production of cellulose nanofibrils: a review of recent advances. Ind Crops Prod 93:2–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.02.016
Oksman K, Mathew AP, Bondeson D, Kvien I (2006) Manufacturing process of cellulose whiskers/polylactic acid nanocomposites. Compos Sci Technol 66:2776–2784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2006.03.002
Okubayashi S, Griesser U, Bechtold T (2004) A kinetic study of moisture sorption and desorption on lyocell fibers. Carbohydr Polym 58:293–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2004.07.004
Okubayashi S, Griesser UJ, Bechtold T (2005) Water accessibilities of man-made cellulosic fibers—effects of fiber characteristics. Cellulose 12:403–410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-005-2179-y
Pelissari FM, Sobral PJdA, Menegalli FC (2013) Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanofibers from banana peels. Cellulose 21:417–432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-013-0138-6
Reddy KO, Maheswari CU, Reddy DJP, Rajulu AV (2009) Thermal properties of Napier grass fibers. Mater Lett 63:2390–2392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2009.08.035
Roman M, Winter TW (2004) Effect of sulfate groups from sulfuric acid hydrolysis on the thermal degradation behavior of bacterial cellulose. Biomacromolecules 5:1671–1677
Siqueira G, Bras J, Dufresne A (2009) Cellulose whiskers versus microfibrils: influence of the nature of the nanoparticle and its surface functionalization on the thermal and mechanical properties of nanocomposites. Biomacromolecules 10:425–432
Siqueira G, Bras J, Dufresne A (2010) Cellulosic bionanocomposites: a review of preparation, properties and applications. Polymers 2:728–765. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym2040728
Spinacé MAS, Lambert CS, Fermoselli KKG, De Paoli M-A (2009) Characterization of lignocellulosic curaua fibres. Carbohydr Polym 77:47–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.12.005
Svagan AJ, Hedenqvist MS, Berglund L (2009) Reduced water vapour sorption in cellulose nanocomposites with starch matrix. Compos Sci Technol 69:500–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2008.11.016
Thomas S, Pothan LA (2009) Natural fibre reinforced polymer composites: from macro to nanoscale, Paris: Éd. des Archives Contemporaines. Old City Publishing, Philadelphia, p 113
Wang QQ, Zhu JY, Gleisner R, Kuster TA, Baxa U, McNeil SE (2012) Morphological development of cellulose fibrils of a bleached eucalyptus pulp by mechanical fibrillation. Cellulose 19(5):1631–1643. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-012-9745-x
Warchol JF, Walton CD (1998) U.S. Patent No. 5,837,768. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, Washington, DC
Xu X, Liu F, Jiang L, Zhu JY, Haagenson D, Wiesenborn DP (2013) Cellulose nanocrystals vs. cellulose nanofibrils: a comparative study on their microstructures and effects as polymer reinforcing agents. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 5:2999–3009. https://doi.org/10.1021/am302624t
Zimmermann T, Pöhler E, Geiger T (2004) Cellulose fibrils for polymer reinforcement. Adv Eng Mater 6:754–761. https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.200400097
Acknowledgments
This study was financially supported by the “Advanced Research Center for Green Materials Science and Technology” from The Featured Area Research Center Program within the framework of the Higher Education Sprout Project by the Ministry of Education (109L9006) and the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan (MOST 109-2634-F-002-042; 106-2813-C-002-147-B). The USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture is also acknowledged for providing financial support to W. Tze through the McIntire Stennis Project (MIN-12-053 under Accession No. 1010000). The authors thank the Taiwan Forestry Research Institute and Dr. Fu-Lan Hsu for providing testing devices and technical assistance.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chen, HC., Tze, W.T.Y. & Chang, FC. Effects of nanocellulose formulation on physicomechanical properties of Aquazol–nanocellulose composites. Cellulose 27, 5757–5769 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-020-03190-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-020-03190-x