Abstract
In this study, flax fibers were oxidized in order to improve the interfacial adhesion of cellulosic fibrils to a TiO2 coating. The TiO2 coating was created on the flax fiber by a Sol–Gel dip-coating technique. The effect of cellulose oxidation and the consequent TiO2 grafting was studied on cellulose crystalline structures using X-ray diffraction. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy was used to compare the reactivity of TiO2 Sol with oxidized and non-oxidized cellulosic fibers. In addition, transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy were applied to characterize the quality of the interface between the fibers and TiO2 coating. Finally, the effect of cellulose oxidation on the mechanical properties of TiO2-grafted flax strands was investigated by tensile tests. The results showed that the oxidation increased significantly the reactivity of the cellulosic surfaces with TiO2 Sol. This method was able to increase the quality of the interface between flax fiber and TiO2 coating, which improved the thermal resistance of the fibers. Eventually, the oxidation of the fiber together with the TiO2 grafting increased significantly both ductility and maximum tensile strength of the flax strands.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alimohammadi F, Parvinzadeh Gashti M, Shamei A (2013) Functional cellulose fibers via polycarboxylic acid/carbon nanotube composite coating. J Coat Technol Res 10:123–132. doi:10.1007/s11998-012-9429-3
Alix S, Lebrun L, Marais S, Philippe E, Bourmaud A, Baley C, Morvan C (2012) Pectinase treatments on technical fibres of flax: effects on water sorption and mechanical properties. Carbohydr Polym 87:177–185. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.07.035
Alix S, Colasse L, Morvan C, Lebrun L, Marais S (2014) Pressure impact of autoclave treatment on water sorption and pectin composition of flax cellulosic-fibres. Carbohydr Polym 102:21–29. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.10.092
Andersons J, Spārniņš E, Joffe R (2006) Stiffness and strength of flax fiber/polymer matrix composites. Polym Compos 27:221–229. doi:10.1002/pc.20184
Baley C, Le Duigou A, Bourmaud A, Davies P (2012) Influence of drying on the mechanical behaviour of flax fibres and their unidirectional composites. Compos Part A 43:1226–1233. doi:10.1016/j.compositesa.2012.03.005
Bhat N, Netravali A, Gore A, Sathianarayanan M, Arolkar G, Deshmukh R (2011) Surface modification of cotton fabrics using plasma technology. Text Res J 81:1014–1026. doi:10.1177/0040517510397574
Biesinger MC, Lau LWM, Gerson AR, Smart RSC (2010) Resolving surface chemical states in XPS analysis of first row transition metals, oxides and hydroxides: Sc, Ti, V, Cu and Zn. Appl Surf Sci 257:887–898. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2010.07.086
Bledzki AK, Reihmane S, Gassan J (1996) Properties and modification methods for vegetable fibers for natural fiber composites. J Appl Polym Sci 59:1329–1336. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(19960222)59:8<1329:AID-APP17>3.0.CO;2-0
Brinker CJ, Frye GC, Hurd AJ, Ashley CS (1991) Fundamentals of sol-gel dip coating. Thin Solid Films 201:97–108. doi:10.1016/0040-6090(91)90158-T
Cantero G, Arbelaiz A, Llano-Ponte R, Mondragon I (2003) Effects of fibre treatment on wettability and mechanical behaviour of flax/polypropylene composites. Compos Sci Technol 63:1247–1254. doi:10.1016/S0266-3538(03)00094-0
Chattopadhyay SK, Singh S, Pramanik N, Niyogi UK, Khandal RK, Uppaluri R, Ghoshal AK (2011) Biodegradability studies on natural fibers reinforced polypropylene composites. J Appl Polym Sci 121:2226–2232. doi:10.1002/app.33828
Clayden J, Greeves N, Warren S (2012) Organic chemistry. Oxford University Press (OUP), Oxford
Cotton FA (1999) Advanced inorganic chemistry, 6th edn. Wiley, Hoboken
Dunuwila DD, Gagliardi CD, Berglund KA (1994) Application of controlled hydrolysis of titanium(IV) isopropoxide to produce sol-gel-derived thin films. Chem Mater 6:1556–1562. doi:10.1021/cm00045a013
Elanthikkal S, Gopalakrishnapanicker U, Varghese S, Guthrie JT (2010) Cellulose microfibres produced from banana plant wastes: isolation and characterization. Carbohydr Polym 80:852–859. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.12.043
Foruzanmehr M, Vuillaume PY, Robert M, Elkoun S (2015) The effect of grafting a nano-TiO2 thin film on physical and mechanical properties of cellulosic natural fibers. Mater Des 85:671–678. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2015.06.105
Galoppini E (2004) Linkers for anchoring sensitizers to semiconductor nanoparticles. Coord Chem Rev 248:1283–1297. doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2004.03.016
Habibi Y, Chanzy H, Vignon MR (2006) TEMPO-mediated surface oxidation of cellulose whiskers. Cellulose 13:679–687. doi:10.1007/s10570-006-9075-y
Herrmann AS, Nickel J, Riedel U (1998) Construction materials based upon biologically renewable resources—from components to finished parts. Polym Degrad Stab 59:251–261. doi:10.1016/S0141-3910(97)00169-9
Heuser E, Shockley W, Adams A, Grunwald EA (1948) Acetylation of cellulose in phosphoric acid solution. Ind Eng Chem 40:1500–1506. doi:10.1021/ie50464a035
Huang J, Ichinose I, Kunitake T (2005) Nanocoating of natural cellulose fibers with conjugated polymer: hierarchical polypyrrole composite materials. Chem Commun 1:1717–1719. doi:10.1039/B415339A
Isogai A, Kato Y (1998) Preparation of polyuronic acid from cellulose by TEMPO-mediated oxidation. Cellulose 5:153–164. doi:10.1023/A:1009208603673
John MJ, Anandjiwala RD (2008) Recent developments in chemical modification and characterization of natural fiber-reinforced composites. Polym Compos 29:187–207. doi:10.1002/pc.20461
Joshi SV, Drzal LT, Mohanty AK, Arora S (2004) Are natural fiber composites environmentally superior to glass fiber reinforced composites? Compos Part A 35:371–376. doi:10.1016/j.compositesa.2003.09.016
Jules P (2008) Agricultural sustainability: concepts, principles and evidence. Philos Trans R Soc B 363:447–465. doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.216
Khalfallah M et al (2014) Innovative flax tapes reinforced Acrodur biocomposites: a new alternative for automotive applications. Mater Des 64:116–126. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2014.07.029
Kim G, Choi W (2010) Charge-transfer surface complex of EDTA-TiO2 and its effect on photocatalysis under visible light. Appl Catal B 100:77–83. doi:10.1016/j.apcatb.2010.07.014
Li X, Tabil L, Panigrahi S (2007) Chemical treatments of natural fiber for use in natural fiber-reinforced composites: a review. J Polym Environ 15:25–33. doi:10.1007/s10924-006-0042-3
Liu Z, Erhan SZ, Akin DE, Barton FE (2006) Green composites from renewable resources: preparation of epoxidized soybean oil and flax fiber composites. J Agric Food Chem 54:2134–2137. doi:10.1021/jf0526745
Livingston EH (2004) Who was student and why do we care so much about his t-test? J Surg Res 118:58–65. doi:10.1016/j.jss.2004.02.003
Luft JH (1961) Improvements in epoxy resin embedding methods. J Cell Biol 9:409–414. doi:10.1083/jcb.9.2.409
Martin J.T. Reaney WHF, Petros Loutas (2006) A Critical Cost Benefit Analysis of Oilseed Biodiesel in Canada. BIOCAP CANADA
Masuelli MA (2013) Fiber reinforced polymers—the technology applied for concrete repair. InTech
Mittal A, Katahira R, Himmel M, Johnson D (2011) Effects of alkaline or liquid-ammonia treatment on crystalline cellulose: changes in crystalline structure and effects on enzymatic digestibility. Biotechnol Biofuels 4:41
Moafi HF, Shojaie AF, Zanjanchi MA (2011) Titania and titania nanocomposites on cellulosic fibers: synthesis, characterization and comparative study of photocatalytic activity. Chem Eng J 166:413–419. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2010.10.074
Mohan D, Pittman CU, Steele PH (2006) Pyrolysis of wood/biomass for bio-oil: a critical review. Energy Fuels 20:848–889. doi:10.1021/ef0502397
Montazer M, Pakdel E (2011) Functionality of nano titanium dioxide on textiles with future aspects: focus on wool. J Photochem Photobiol C Photochem Rev 12:293–303. doi:10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2011.08.005
Mukhopadhyay S, Fangueiro R (2009) Physical modification of natural fibers and thermoplastic films for composites—a Review. J Thermoplast Compos Mater 22:135–162. doi:10.1177/0892705708091860
Nassiopoulos E, Njuguna J (2015) Thermo-mechanical performance of poly(lactic acid)/flax fibre-reinforced biocomposites. Mater Des 66(Part B):473–485. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2014.07.051
Ojamäe L, Aulin C, Pedersen H, Käll P-O (2006) IR and quantum-chemical studies of carboxylic acid and glycine adsorption on rutile TiO2 nanoparticles. J Colloid Interface Sci 296:71–78. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2005.08.037
Qiu T, Barteau MA (2006) STM study of glycine on TiO2(110) single crystal surfaces. J Colloid Interface Sci 303:229–235. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2006.07.053
Saito T, Isogai A (2004) TEMPO-mediated oxidation of native cellulosethe effect of oxidation conditions on chemical and crystal structures of the water-insoluble fractions. Biomacromolecules 5:1983–1989. doi:10.1021/bm0497769
Sakata I, Morita M, Tsuruta N, Morita K (1993) Activation of wood surface by corona treatment to improve adhesive bonding. J Appl Polym Sci 49:1251–1258. doi:10.1002/app.1993.070490714
Schütz C et al (2012) Hard and transparent films formed by nanocellulose–TiO < sub > 2</sub > nanoparticle hybrids. PLoS ONE 7:e45828. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045828
Shubhra QH et al (2010) Characterization of plant and animal based natural fibers reinforced polypropylene composites and their comparative study. Fibers Polym 11:725–731. doi:10.1007/s12221-010-0725-1
Siddiqui NA, Li EL, Sham M-L, Tang BZ, Gao SL, Mäder E, Kim J-K (2010) Tensile strength of glass fibres with carbon nanotube–epoxy nanocomposite coating: effects of CNT morphology and dispersion state. Compos Part A 41:539–548. doi:10.1016/j.compositesa.2009.12.011
Stana-Kleinschek K, Ribitsch V, Kreze T, Fras L (2004) Quantitative determination of carboxyl groups in cellulose by complexometric titration. Mater Res Innov 8:145–146
Strnad S, Sauperl O, Fras-Zemljic L (2010). Cellulose fibres funcionalised by chitosan: characterization and application. In: Elnashar M (ed) Biopolymers. InTech. doi:10.5772/10262
Tojo G, Fernández M (2006) Oxidations mediated by TEMPO and related stable nitroxide radicals (Anelli Oxidation). In: Tojo G (ed) Oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes and ketones. basic reactions in organic synthesis. Springer US, pp 241–253. doi:10.1007/0-387-25725-X_5
Uddin MJ, Cesano F, Bonino F, Bordiga S, Spoto G, Scarano D, Zecchina A (2007) Photoactive TiO2 films on cellulose fibres: synthesis and characterization. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 189:286–294. doi:10.1016/j.jphotochem.2007.02.015
Uddin MJ et al (2008) Cotton textile fibres coated by Au/TiO2 films: synthesis, characterization and self cleaning properties. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 199:64–72. doi:10.1016/j.jphotochem.2008.05.004
Vittadini A, Selloni A, Rotzinger FP, Grätzel M (2000) Formic acid adsorption on dry and hydrated TiO2 anatase (101) surfaces by DFT calculations. J Phys Chem B 104:1300–1306. doi:10.1021/jp993583b
Wang R et al (1998) Photogeneration of highly amphiphilic TiO2 surfaces. Adv Mater 10:135–138. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1521-4095(199801)10:2<135:AID-ADMA135>3.0.CO;2-M
Wang N, Zhu L, Deng K, She Y, Yu Y, Tang H (2010) Visible light photocatalytic reduction of Cr(VI) on TiO2 in situ modified with small molecular weight organic acids. Appl Catal B 95:400–407. doi:10.1016/j.apcatb.2010.01.019
Weiss PA (1962) Renewable resources: a report to the committee on natural Resources of the national academy of sciences-national research council, vol 1. National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, Washington
Yan L, Chouw N, Jayaraman K (2015) Effect of UV and water spraying on the mechanical properties of flax fabric reinforced polymer composites used for civil engineering applications. Mater Des 71:17–25. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2015.01.003
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Fonds de Recherche du Québec-Nature et Technologie (FRQNT), National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), and Centre de Technologie Minérale et de Plasturgie (CTMP) for providing the financial support as BMP-innovation scholarship.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Foruzanmehr, M., Boulos, L., Vuillaume, P.Y. et al. The Effect of cellulose oxidation on interfacial bonding of nano-TiO2 coating to flax fibers. Cellulose 24, 1529–1542 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-016-1185-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-016-1185-6