Abstract
The deleterious association between various types of prenatal maternal psychological distress (PNMS, anxiety, depression, psychological distress, stress) and childhood anxiety symptomatology (internalizing behaviors, anxiety symptoms) has been established using both retrospective and prospective longitudinal studies across varied demographic cohorts and throughout development. Yet, the existing literature cannot claim maternal distress during pregnancy to be a specific risk factor for anxiety symptomatology, as studies utilizing such observational designs are unable to adequately account for confounding of potential genetic factors and the postnatal environment. In this review, we examine studies that attempt to minimize such confounding and thus disentangle the unique intrauterine exposure effect of varying types of PNMS on childhood anxiety symptomatology. Such methodologies include paternal versus maternal comparison studies, sibling comparisons, prenatal cross-fostering designs and timing of exposure studies (including disaster studies). Of the identified studies, findings indicate that prenatal maternal distress is likely to constitute a risk factor for anxiety symptomatology, although more studies are needed to replicate current findings in order to determine whether there are clear differences in effects across specific types of PNMS and for specific subpopulations. We review the methodological limitations and strengths of the literature prior to exploring avenues of future research and implications for theory and clinical practice.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach, T. M. (1991a). Manual for the child behavior checklist 4–18 and 1991 profile. Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
Achenbach, T. M. (1991b). Manual for the youth self report and 1991 profile. Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
Achenbach, T. M. (1992). Manual for the child behaviour checklist/2-3 and 1992 profile. Burlington, VT: Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont.
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA preschool form & profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth and Families.
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms & profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Centre for Children, Youth, & Families.
Aktar, E., Majdandžić, M., De Vente, W., & Bögels, S. M. (2013). The interplay between expressed parental anxiety and infant behavioural inhibition predicts infant avoidance in a social referencing paradigm. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(2), 144–156. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02601.x.
Almond, S., & Healey, A. (2003). Mental health and absence from work: New evidence from the UK quarterly labour force survey. Work, Employment & Society, 17(4), 731–742. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017003174007.
Ashford, M. T., Olander, E. K., & Ayers, S. (2016). Computer- or web-based interventions for perinatal mental health: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 197, 134–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.02.057.
Askew, C., & Field, A. P. (2008). The vicarious learning pathway to fear 40 years on. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(7), 1249–1265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2008.05.003.
Austin, M.-P., Hadzi-Pavlovic, D., Priest, S., Reilly, N., Wilhelm, K., Saint, K., et al. (2010). Depressive and anxiety disorders in the postpartum period: How prevalent are they and can we improve their detection? Official Journal of the Section on Women’s Health of the World Psychiatric Association, 13(5), 395–401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-010-0153-7.
Bale, T. L. (2011). Sex differences in prenatal epigenetic programming of stress pathways. Stress, 14(4), 348–356. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2011.586447.
Bale, T. L., Baram, T. Z., Brown, A. S., Goldstein, J. M., Insel, T. R., McCarthy, M. M., et al. (2010). Early Life Programming and Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 68(4), 314–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.05.028.
Bartels, M., van de Aa, N., van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M., Middeldorp, C. M., & Boomsma, D. I. (2011). Adolescent self-report of emotional and behavioral problems: Interactions of genetic factors with sex and age. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 20(1), 35–52. Retrieved from https://www-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/pmc/articles/PMC3024721/
Beesdo, K., Knappe, S., & Pine, D. S. (2009). Anxiety and anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Developmental issues and implications for DSM-V. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 32(3), 483–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2009.06.002.
Beijers, R., Buitelaar, J. K., & de Weerth, C. (2014). Mechanisms underlying the effects of prenatal psychosocial stress on child outcomes: Beyond the HPA axis. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 23(10), 943–956. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0566-3.
Bengoetxea, X., Paternain, L., Martisova, E., Milagro, F., Martínez, J., Campión, J., et al. (2017). Effects of perinatal diet and prenatal stress on the behavioural profile of aged male and female rats. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 31(3), 356–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881116686881.
Bennett, H. A., Einarson, A., Taddio, A., Koren, G., & Einarson, T. R. (2004). Prevalence of depression during pregnancy: Systematic review. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 103(4), 698. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000116689.75396.5f.
Bergman, K., Sarkar, P., Glover, V., & O’Connor, T. (2010). Maternal prenatal cortisol and infant cognitive development: Moderation by infant-mother attachment. Biological Psychiatry, 67(11), 1026–1032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.01.002.
Betts, K. S., Williams, G. M., Najman, J. M., & Alati, R. (2015). The relationship between maternal depressive, anxious, and stress symptoms during pregnancy and adult offspring behavioral and emotional problems. Depression and Anxiety, 32(2), 82–90. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22272.
Birtchnell, J., Evans, C., & Kennard, J. (1988). The total score of the Crown-Crisp Experiential Index: A useful and valid measure of psychoneurotic pathology. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 61(3), 255–266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.1988.tb02787.x.
Bornstein, M. H., Hahn, C.-S., & Haynes, O. M. (2011). Maternal Personality, Parenting Cognitions, and Parenting Practices. Developmental Psychology, 47(3), 658–675. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023181.
Brown, A. S., van Os, J., Driessens, C., Hoek, H. W., & Susser, E. S. (2000). Further evidence of relation between prenatal famine and major affective disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(2), 190. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.2.190.
Burt, S. A. (2009). Rethinking environmental contributions to child and adolescent psychopathology: A meta-analysis of shared environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 608–637. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015702.
Cao-Lei, L., de Rooij, S. R., King, S., Matthews, S. G., Metz, G. A. S., Roseboom, T. J., et al. (2017). Prenatal stress and epigenetics. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.05.016.
Capron, L. E., Glover, V., Pearson, R. M., Evans, J., O’Connor, T. G., Stein, A., et al. (2015). Associations of maternal and paternal antenatal mood with offspring anxiety disorder at age 18 years. Journal of Affective Disorders, 187, 20–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.08.012.
Carpenter, T., Grecian, S. M., & Reynolds, R. M. (2017). Sex differences in early-life programming of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis in humans suggest increased vulnerability in females: A systematic review. Journal of Development Origins of Health and Disease, 8(2), 244–255. https://doi.org/10.1017/S204017441600074X.
Caspi, A., Hariri, A. R., Holmes, A., Uher, R., & Moffitt, T. E. (2010). Genetic sensitivity to the environment: The case of the serotonin transporter gene and its implications for studying complex diseases and traits. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(5), 509–527. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09101452.
Chan, K. (2014). Prenatal meditation influences infant behaviors. Infant Behavior and Development, 37(4), 556–561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2014.06.011.
Charil, A., Laplante, D. P., Vaillancourt, C., & King, S. (2010). Prenatal stress and brain development. Brain Research Reviews, 65(1), 56–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2010.06.002.
Chorpita, B. F., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). The development of anxiety: The role of control in the early environment. Psychological Bulletin, 124(1), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.124.1.3.
Clifton, V. L. (2010). Review: Sex and the human placenta: Mediating differential strategies of fetal growth and survival. Placenta, 31, S33–S39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.placenta.2009.11.010.
Conrod, P. J., & Stewart, S. H. (Eds.). (2008). Anxiety and substance use disorders the vicious cycle of comorbidity. Retrieved from https://link-springer-com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/book/10.1007%2F978-0-387-74290-8
Cox, J. L., Holden, J. M., & Sagovsky, R. (1987). Detection of postnatal depression. Development of the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. The British journal of psychiatry : The journal of mental science, 150, 782.
Cryan, J. F., & Dinan, T. G. (2013). Unraveling the longstanding scars of early neurodevelopmental stress. Biological Psychiatry, 74(11), 788–789.
Dadds, M. R., Moul, C., Mendoza, D. A., & Brennan, J. (2015). Individual difference in childhood behavior disorders associated with epigenetic modulation of the cortisol receptor gene. Child Development, 86(5), 1311–1320. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12391.
Dancause, K. N., Mutran, D., Elgbeili, G., Laplante, D. P., Kildea, S., Stapleton, H., et al. (2016). Dietary change mediates relationships between stress during pregnancy and infant head circumference measures: The QF2011 study. Maternal and Child Nutrition, 13, e12359. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12359.
Davis, E. P., Glynn, L. M., Schetter, C. D., Hobel, C., Chicz-Demet, A., & Sandman, C. A. (2007). Prenatal exposure to maternal depression and cortisol influences infant temperament. Journal of the American Acadamy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(6), 737–746. https://doi.org/10.1097/chi.0b013e318047b775.
Davis, E. P., & Sandman, C. A. (2012). Prenatal psychobiological predictors of anxiety risk in preadolescent children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(8), 1224–1233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.12.016.
de Beurs, E. (2004). Brief symptom inventory, handleiding. The Netherlands: Leiden.
de Bruijn, A. T. C. E., van Bakel, H. J. A., & van Baar, A. L. (2009). Sex differences in the relation between prenatal maternal emotional complaints and child outcome. Early Hum Dev, 85(5), 319–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2008.12.009.
Derogatis, L. R. (1993). Brief symptom inventory (BSI): Administration, scoring and procedures manual (3rd ed.). Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems.
Derogatis, L. R. (1994). SCL-90-R: Administration, scoring and procedures manual. Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems.
Dieleman, G. C., Huizink, A. C., Tulen, J. H. M., Utens, E. M. W. J., Creemers, H. E., van der Ende, J., et al. (2015). Alterations in HPA-axis and autonomic nervous system functioning in childhood anxiety disorders point to a chronic stress hypothesis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 51, 135–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.02.015.
Dipietro, J. A. (2012). Maternal stress in pregnancy: Considerations for fetal development. Journal of Adolescent Health, 51(2 Suppl), S3–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.04.008.
Donovan, S. J., & Susser, E. (2011). Commentary: Advent of sibling designs. International Journal of Epidemiology, 40(2), 345–349. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyr057.
Duncan, L. E., & Keller, M. C. (2011). A Critical Review of the First 10 Years of Candidate Gene-by-Environment Interaction Research in Psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(10), 1041–1049. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11020191.
Dunkel Schetter, C., & Tanner, L. (2012). Anxiety, depression and stress in pregnancy: Implications for mothers, children, research, and practice. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 25(2), 141. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e3283503680.
Eley, T. C., McAdams, T. A., Rijsdijk, F. V., Lichtenstein, P., Narusyte, J., Reiss, D., et al. (2015). The intergenerational transmission of anxiety: A children-of-twins study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 172(7), 630–637. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14070818.
Evans, J., Heron, J., Francomb, H., Oke, S., & Golding, J. (2001). Cohort study of depressed mood during pregnancy and after childbirth. British Medical Journal, 323(7307), 257. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.323.7307.257.
Faravelli, C., Lo Sauro, C., Godini, L., Lelli, L., Benni, L., Pietrini, F., et al. (2012). Childhood stressful events, HPA axis and anxiety disorders. World journal of psychiatry, 2(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v2.i1.13.
Felder, J. N., Segal, Z., Beck, A., Sherwood, N. E., Goodman, S. H., Boggs, J., et al. (2017). An open trial of web-based mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for perinatal women at risk for depressive relapse. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 24(1), 26–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2016.02.002.
Field, T. (2017). Prenatal depression risk factors, developmental effects and interventions: A review. Journal of Pregnancy and Child Health, 4(1), 301. https://doi.org/10.4172/2376-127x.1000301.
Field, T., Diego, M., Hernandez-Reif, M., Figueiredo, B., Deeds, O., Ascencio, A., et al. (2010). Comorbid depression and anxiety effects on pregnancy and neonatal outcome. Infant Behavior and Development, 33(1), 23–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2009.10.004.
Forsell, E., Bendiz, M., Hollandare, F., Szymanska von Shultz, B. S., Nasiell, J., Blomdahl-Wetterholm, M., et al. (2017). Internet delivered cognitive behavior therapy for antenatal depression: A randomised control trial. Journal of Affective Disorders, 221, 56–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.06.013.
Frye, C. A., & Wawrzycki, J. (2003). Effect of prenatal stress and gonadal hormone condition on depressive behaviors of female and male rats. Hormones and Behavior, 44(4), 319–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0018-506X(03)00159-4.
Garcia-Cáceres, C., Lagunas, N., Calmarza-Font, I., Azcoitia, I., Diz-Chaves, Y., Garcia-Segura, L. M., et al. (2010). Gender differences in the long-term effects of chronic prenatal stress on the HPA axis and hypothalamic structure in rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35(10), 1525–1535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.05.006.
Gartstein, M. A., Putnam, S. P., & Rothbart, M. K. (2012). Etiology of preschool behavior problems: Contributions of temperament attributes in early childhood. Infant Mental Health Journal, 33(2), 197–211. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21312.
Gavin, I. N., Gaynes, N. B., Lohr, N. K., Meltzer-Brody, N. S., Gartlehner, N. G., & Swinson, N. T. (2005). Perinatal depression: A systematic review of prevalence and incidence. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 106(5, Part 1), 1071–1083. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aog.0000183597.31630.db.
Gjerde, L. C., Eilertsen, E. M., Reichborn-Kjennerud, T., McAdams, T. A., Zachrisson, H. D., Zambrana, I. M., et al. (2017). Maternal perinatal and concurrent depressive symptoms and child behavior problems: A sibling comparison study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(7), 779–786. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12704.
Glover, V. (2014). Maternal depression, anxiety and stress during pregnancy and child outcome; what needs to be done. Best Practise & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 28(1), 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2013.08.017.
Glover, V., & Hill, J. (2012). Sex differences in the programming effects of prenatal stress on psychopathology and stress responses: An evolutionary perspective. Physiology & Behavior, 106, 736–740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.02.011.
Gluckman, P. D., & Hanson, M. (Eds.). (2006). Developmental origins of health and disease. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Golding, J., Pembrey, M., & Jones, R. (2001). ALSPAC—The Avon longitudinal study of parents and children I. Study methodology. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 15(1), 74–87. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3016.2001.00325.x.
Goodman, R. (2016, November 11). SDQ: Scoring the SDQ. Retrieved 30/08/2017, 2017, from http://www.sdqinfo.com/py/sdqinfo/c0.py.
Goodman, R., Ford, T., Richards, H., Gatward, R., & Meltzer, H. (2000). The development and well-being assessment: Description and initial validation of an integrated assessment of child and adolescent psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(5), 645–655. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2000.tb02345.x.
Goodman, S. H., & Gotlib, I. H. (1999). Risk for psychopathology in the children of depressed mothers: A developmental model for understanding mechanisms of transmission. Psychological Review, 106(3), 458–490. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.106.3.458.
Goodman, R., Meltzer, H., & Bailey, V. (1998). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A pilot study on the validity of the self- report version. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 7(3), 125–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s007870050057.
Goodman, S. H., Rouse, M. H., Connell, A. M., Broth, M. R., Hall, C. M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-010-0080-1.
Graignic-Philippe, R., Dayan, J., Chokron, S., Jacquet, A. Y., & Tordjman, S. (2014). Effects of prenatal stress on fetal and child development: A critical literature review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 43, 137–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.022.
Green, C. G., Babineau, V., Jolicoeur-Martineau, A., Bouvette-Turcot, A.-A., Minde, K., Sassi, R., et al. (2016). Prenatal maternal depression and child serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) and dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) genotype predict negative emotionality from 3 to 36 months. Development and Psychopathology, 29(3), 901–917. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579416000560.
Gu, W., Jones, C. T., & Parer, J. T. (1985). Metabolic and cardiovascular effects on fetal sheep of sustained reduction of uterine blood flow. The Journal of Physiology, 368(1), 109–129. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1985.sp015849.
Heron, J., O’Connor, T. G., Evans, J., Golding, J., & Glover, V. (2004). The course of anxiety and depression through pregnancy and the postpartum in a community sample. Journal of Affective Disorders, 80(1), 65–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2003.08.004.
Howard, L. M., Molyneaux, E., Dennis, C.-L., Rochat, T., Stein, A., & Milgrom, J. (2014). Non-psychotic mental disorders in the perinatal period. The Lancet (London, England), 384(9956), 1775. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(14)61276-9.
Huizink, A. C. (2012). Prenatal substance use, prenatal stress and offspring behavioural outcomes: Considerations for future studies. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 66, 115–122. https://doi.org/10.3109/08039488.2011.641586.
Huizink, A. C., De Medina, P. G. R., Mulder, E. J., Visser, G. H., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2002). Psychological measures of prenatal stress as predictors of infant temperament. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(9), 1078–1085. https://doi.org/10.1087/01.CHI.0000020276.43550.4B.
Huizink, A. C., Dick, D. M., Sihvola, E., Pulkkinen, L., Rose, R. J., & Kaprio, J. (2007). Chernobyl exposure as stressor during pregnancy and behaviour in adolescent offspring. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 116(6), 438–446. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2007.01050.x.
Huizink, A. C., Robles De Medina, P. G., Mulder, E. J. H., Visser, G. H. A., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2003). Stress during pregnancy is associated with developmental outcome in infancy. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44(6), 810–818. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00166.
Jacka, F. N., Ystrom, E., Brantsaeter, A. L., Karevold, E., Roth, C., Haugen, M., et al. (2013). Maternal and early postnatal nutrition and mental health of offspring by age 5 years: A prospective cohort study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(10), 1038–1047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.07.002.
Josephine, K., Josefine, L., Philipp, D., David, E., & Harald, B. (2017). Internet- and mobile-based depression interventions for people with diagnosed depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 223, 28–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.07.021.
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 593. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593.
Kildea, S., Simcock, G., Liu, A., Elgbeili, G., Laplante, D., Kahler, A., et al. (2017). Continuity of midwifery carer moderates the effects of prenatal maternal stress on postnatal maternal wellbeing: The Queensland flood study. Archives of Womens Mental Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-017-0781-2.
King, S., Dancause, K., Turcotte-Tremblay, A.-M., Veru, F., & Laplante, D. P. (2012). Using natural disasters to study the effects of prenatal maternal stress on child health and development. Birth Defects Research Part C - Embryo Today: Reviews, 96(4), 273–288. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdrc.21026.
Kingsbury, M., Weeks, M., Mackinnon, N., Evans, J., Mahedy, L., Dykxhoorn, J., et al. (2016). Stressful life events during pregnancy and offspring depression: Evidence from a prospective cohort study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 55(8), 709–716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2016.05.014.
Korhonen, M., Luoma, I., Salmelin, R., & Tamminen, T. (2012). A longitudinal study of maternal prenatal, postnatal and concurrent depressive symptoms and adolescent well-being. Journal of Affective Disorders, 136(3), 680–692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.10.007.
Kundakovic, M., & Jaric, I. (2017). The epigenetic link between prenatal adverse environments and neurodevelopmental disorders. Genes, 8(3), 104. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes8030104.
Kuperman, S., Schlosser, S. S., Kramer, Jr, Bucholz, K., Hesselbrock, V., Reich, T., et al. (2001). Developmental sequence from disruptive behavior diagnosis to adolescent alcohol dependence. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(12), 2022–2026. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.12.2022.
Lamb, D., Middeldorp, C. M., Van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M., & Boomsma, D. I. (2012a). Gene–environment interaction in teacher-rated internalizing and externalizing problem behavior in 7- to 12-year-old twins. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53(8), 818–825. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02497.x.
Lamb, D., Middeldorp, C., Vink, J., van Beijsterveldt, T., Lindauer, R., & Boomsma, D. (2012b). Short and long-term effects of nonparental child care on internalizing and externalizing problems: A behavior genetic study in Dutch twins. Behavior Genetics, 42(6), 946–946. https://doi.org/10.1375/1832427054253103.
Laplante, D. P., Barr, R. G., Brunet, A., Du Fort, G. G., Meaney, M. L., Saucier, J. F., et al. (2004). Stress during pregnancy affects general intellectual and language functioning in human toddlers. Pediatric Research, 56(3), 400–410. https://doi.org/10.1203/01.pdr.0000136281.34035.44.
Leach, L. S., Poyser, C., & Fairweather-Schmidt, K. (2015). Maternal perinatal anxiety: A review of prevalence and correlates. Clinical Psychologist, 21, 4–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/cp.12058.
Leis, J. A., Heron, J., Stuart, E. A., & Mendelson, T. (2014). Associations between maternal mental health and child emotional and behavioral problems: Does prenatal mental health matter? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(1), 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9766-4.
Lewis, G., Pelosi, A. J., Araya, R., & Dunn, G. (1992). Measuring psychiatric disorder in the community: A standardized assessment for use by lay interviewers. Psychological Medicine, 22(2), 465–486. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291700030415.
Lewis, S. J., Relton, C., Zammit, S., & Smith, G. D. (2013). Approaches for strengthening causal inference regarding prenatal risk factors for childhood behavioural and psychiatric disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(10), 1095–1108. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12127.
Lobel, M., Cannella, D. L., Graham, J. E., DeVincent, C., Schneider, J., & Meyer, B. A. (2008). Pregnancy-specific stress, prenatal health behaviors, and birth outcomes. Health Psychology, 27(5), 604–614. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013242.
Loomans, E. M., van der Stelt, O., van Eijsden, M., Gemke, R. J., Vrijkotte, T., & den Bergh, B. R. (2011). Antenatal maternal anxiety is associated with problem behaviour at age five. Early Human Development, 87(8), 565–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2011.04.014.
Marchesi, C., Ossola, P., Amerio, A., Daniel, B. D., Tonna, M., & De Panfilis, C. (2016). Clinical management of perinatal anxiety disorders: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 190, 543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.11.004.
McAdams, T. A., Neiderhiser, J. M., Rijsdijk, F. V., Narusyte, J., Lichtenstein, P., & Eley, T. C. (2014). Accounting for genetic and environmental confounds in associations between parent and child characteristics: A systematic review of children-of-twins studies. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 1138–1173. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036416.
Middeldorp, C. M., Wesseldijk, L. W., Hudziak, J. J., Verhulst, F. C., Lindauer, R. J. L., & Dieleman, G. C. (2016). Parents of children with psychopathology: Psychiatric problems and the association with their child’s problems. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 25(8), 919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-015-0813-2.
Monk, C., Georgieff, M. K., & Osterholm, E. A. (2013). Research Review: Maternal prenatal distress and poor nutrition—mutually influencing risk factors affecting infant neurocognitive development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(2), 115–130. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12000.
Morley-Fletcher, S., Darnaudery, M., Koehl, M., Casolini, P., Van Reeth, O., & Maccari, S. (2003). Prenatal stress in rats predicts immobility behavior in the forced swim test. Effects of a chronic treatment with tianeptine. Brain Research, 989(2), 246–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-8993(03)03293-1.
Moss, K. M., Simcock, G., Cobham, V., Kildea, S., Elgbeili, G., Laplante, D. P., et al. (2017). A potential psychological mechanism linking disaster-related prenatal maternal stress with child cognitive and motor development at 16 months: The QF2011 Queensland Flood Study. Developmental Psychology, 53(4), 629–641. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000272.
Muris, P., & Ollendick, T. (2005). The role of temperament in the etiology of child psychopathology. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8(4), 271–289. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-005-8809-y.
Mychailyszyn, M. P., Kendall, P. C., & Mendez, J. L. (2010). School functioning in youth with and without anxiety disorders: Comparisons by diagnosis and comorbidity. School Psychology Review, 39(1), 106–121. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/219648831?pq-origsite=gscholar.
Nast, I., Bolten, M., Meinlschmidt, G., & Hellhammer, D. H. (2013). How to measure prenatal stress? A systematic review of psychometric instruments to assess psychosocial stress during pregnancy. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 27, 313–322. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppe.12051.
Nelemans, S. A., Hale, W. W., 3rd, Branje, S. J., Hawk, S. T., & Meeus, W. H. (2014). Maternal criticism and adolescent depressive and generalized anxiety disorder symptoms: A 6-year longitudinal community study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(5), 755–766. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9817-x.
O’Connor, T. G., Monk, C., & Fitelson, E. M. (2014). Practitioner Review: Maternal mood in pregnancy and child development—Implications for child psychology and psychiatry. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 99–111. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12153.
O’Donnell, K. J., & Meaney, M. J. (2017). Fetal origins of mental health: The developmental origins of health and disease hypothesis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 174(4), 319–328. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16020138.
Oberlander, T. F., Bonaguro, R. J., Misri, S., Papsdorf, M., Ross, C. J., & Simpson, E. M. (2008). Prenatal exposure to maternal depression, neonatal methylation of human glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) and infant cortisol stress response. Epigenetics, 3, 97–106. https://doi.org/10.4161/epi.3.2.6034.
O’Connor, T., Heron, J., Golding, J., Beveridge, M., & Glover, V. (2002). Maternal antenatal anxiety and children’s behavioural/emotional problems at 4 years—Report from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 502–508. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.180.6.502.
O’Donnell, K. J., Glover, V., Barker, E. D., & O’Connor, T. G. (2014a). The persisting effect of maternal mood in pregnancy on childhood psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 26(2), 393–403. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579414000029.
O’Donnell, K. J., Glover, V., Holbrook, J. D., & O’Connor, T. G. (2014b). Maternal prenatal anxiety and child brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) genotype: Effects on internalizing symptoms from 4 to 15 years of age. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 1255–1266. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457941400100X.
Ollendick, T. H., & Grills, A. E. (2016). Perceived control, family environment, and the etiology of child anxiety-revisited. Behavior Therapy, 47(5), 633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2016.01.007.
Ostlund, E., Conradt, E., Crowell, S. E., Tyrka, A. R., Marsit, C. J., & Lester, B. M. (2016). Prenatal stress fearfulness and the epigenome: Exploratory analysis of sex difference in DNA methylation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 10, 147. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00147.
Patterson, P. H. (2011). Maternal infection and immune involvement in autism. Trends in Molecular Medicine, 17(7), 389–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2011.03.001.
Pearson, J., Tarabulsy, G. M., & Bussieres, E. L. (2015). Foetal programming and cortisol secretion in early childhood: A meta-analysis of different programming variables. Infant Behavor and Development, 40, 204–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2015.04.004.
Pihlakoski, L., Sourander, A., Aromaa, M., Ronning, J. A., Rautava, P., Helenius, H., et al. (2013). Do antenatal and postnatal parental psychological distress, and recognized need of help predict preadolescent’s psychiatric symptoms? The Finnish Family Competence Cohort Study. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 44(2), 305–319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-012-0326-x.
Pluess, M., Velders, F. P., Belsky, J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Jaddoe, V. W., et al. (2011). Serotonin transporter polymorphism moderates effects of prenatal maternal anxiety on infant negative emotionality. Biological Psychiatry, 69(6), 520–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.10.006.
Polderman, T. J. C., Benyamin, B., De Leeuw, C. A., Sullivan, P. F., Van Bochoven, A., Visscher, P. M., et al. (2015). Meta-analysis of the heritability of human traits based on fifty years of twin studies. Nature Genetics, 47(7), 702–709. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.3285.
Poltyrev, T., Gorodetsky, E., Bejar, C., Schorer-Apelbaum, D., & Weinstock, M. (2005). Effect of chronic treatment with ladostigil (TV-3326) on anxiogenic and depressive-like behaviour and on activity of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis in male and female prenatally stressed rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 181(1), 118–125. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-005-2229-z.
Ramchandani, P. G., & Psychogiou, L. (2009). Paternal psychiatric disorders and children’s psychosocial development. The Lancet, 374(9690), 646–653. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60238-5.
Rapee, R. M. (2001). The development of generalized anxiety. In M. W. Vasey & M. R. Dadds (Eds.), The developmental psychopathology of anxiety (pp. 481–503). New York: Oxford University Press.
Rapee, R. M., Schniering, C. A., & Hudson, J. L. (2009). Anxiety disorders during childhood and adolescence: Origins and treatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5, 311–341. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.032408.153628.
Rice, F., Harold, G. T., Boivin, J., van den Bree, M., Hay, D. F., & Thapar, A. (2010). The links between prenatal stress and offspring development and psychopathology: Disentangling environmental and inherited influences. Psychological Medicine, 40(2), 335–345. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291709005911.
Rouse, M. H., & Goodman, S. H. (2014). Perinatal depression influences on infant negative affectivity: Timing, severity, and co-morbid anxiety. Infant Behavior and Development., 37(4), 739–751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2014.09.001.
Rutter, M. (2007). Proceeding from observed correlation to causal inference: The use of natural experiments. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2(4), 377–395. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00050.x.
Rutter, M. (2009). Epidemiological methods to tackle causal questions. International Journal of Epidemiology, 38(1), 3–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyn253.
Schulz, K. M., Pearson, J. N., Neeley, E. W., Berger, R., Leonard, S., Adams, C. E., et al. (2011). Maternal stress during pregnancy causes sex-specific alterations in offspring memory performance, social interactions, indices of anxiety, and body mass. Physiology & Behavior, 104(2), 340–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.02.021.
Settipani, C., & Kendall, P. (2013). Social functioning in youth with anxiety disorders: Association with anxiety severity and outcomes from cognitive-behavioral therapy. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 44(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-012-0307-0.
Shackman, A. J., Fox, A. S., Oler, J. A., Shelton, S. E., Davidson, R. J., & Kalin, N. H. (2013). Neural mechanisms underlying heterogeneity in the presentation of anxious temperament. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(15), 6145–6150. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1214364110.
Shi, Z., & MacBeth, A. (2017). The effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions on maternal perinatal mental health outcomes: A systematic review. Mindfulness, 8(4), 823–847. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0673-y.
Simcock, G., Laplante, D. P., Elgbeili, G., Kildea, S., Cobham, V., Stapleton, H., et al. (2016). Infant neurodevelopment is affected by prenatal maternal stress: The QF2011 Queensland Flood Study. Infancy, 22, 282–302. https://doi.org/10.1111/infa.12166.
Smiling Mind. (2017). Mind the Bump (Version 1.6) [Mobile application software]. Retrieved from http:/itunes.apple.com.
Smith, G. D. (2008). Assessing intrauterine influences on offspring health outcomes: Can epidemiological studies yield robust findings? Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, 102, 245–256. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-7843.2007.00191.x.
Stein, A., Pearson, R. M., Goodman, S. H., Rapa, E., Rahman, A., McCallum, M., et al. (2014). Effects of perinatal mental disorders on the fetus and child. The Lancet, 384(9956), 1800–1819. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(14)61277-0.
Tamrouti-Makkink, I. D., Dubas, J. S., Gerris, J. R. M., & Aken, M. A. G. (2004). The relation between the absolute level of parenting and differential parental treatment with adolescent siblings’ adjustment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(8), 1397–1406. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00331.x.
Tau, G., & Peterson, B. S. (2010). Normal development of brain circuits. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35(1), 147–168. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2009.115.
Tegethoff, M., Greene, N., Olsen, J., Schaffner, E., & Meinlschmidt, G. (2011). Stress during pregnancy and offspring pediatric disease: A national cohort study. Environmental Health Perspectives, 119(11), 1647–1652. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1003253.
Thapar, A., & Rutter, M. (2009). Do prenatal risk factors cause psychiatric disorder? Be wary of causal claims. The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 195(2), 100. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.109.062828.
Tiemeier, H., Velders, F. P., Szekely, E., Roza, S. J., Dieleman, G., Jaddoe, V. W. V., et al. (2012). The Generation R Study: A review of design, findings to date, and a study of the 5-HTTLPR by environmental interaction from fetal life onward. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(11), 1119–1135.e1117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2012.08.021.
Van Batenburg-Eddes, T., Brion, M. J., Henrichs, J., Jaddoe, V. W., Hofman, A., Verhulst, F. C., et al. (2013). Parental depressive and anxiety symptoms during pregnancy and attention problems in children: A cross-cohort consistency study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(5), 591–600. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12023.
Van den Bergh, B. R. H., & Marcoen, A. (2004). High antenatal maternal anxiety is related to ADHD symptoms, externalizing problems, and anxiety in 8- and 9-year-olds. Child Development, 75(4), 1085–1097. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00727.x.
Van den Bergh, B. R. H., van den Heuvel, M. I., Lahti, M., Braeken, M., de Rooij, S. R., Entringer, S., et al. (2017). Prenatal developmental origins of behavior and mental health: The influence of maternal stress in pregnancy. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.07.003.
van Den Heuvel, M. I., Johannes, M. A., Henrichs, J., & Van den Bergh, B. R. H. (2015). Maternal mindfulness during pregnancy and infant socio-emotional development and temperament: The mediating role of maternal anxiety. Early Human Development, 91(2), 103–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2014.12.003.
van den Heuvel, M. I., & Thomason, M. E. (2016). Functional connectivity of the human brain in utero. Trends in Cognitive Sciences., 20(2), 931–939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.10.001.
Vasey, M. W., & Dadds, M. R. (2001). An introduction to the developmental psychopathology of anxiety. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Velders, F. P., Dieleman, G., Cents, R. A., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Jaddoe, V. W., Hofman, A., et al. (2012). Variation in the glucocorticoid receptor gene at rs41423247 moderates the effect of prenatal maternal psychological symptoms on child cortisol reactivity and behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37(11), 2541–2549. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2012.118.
Velders, F. P., Dieleman, G., Henrichs, J., Jaddoe, V., Hofman, A., Verhulst, F., et al. (2011). Prenatal and postnatal psychological symptoms of parents and family functioning: The impact on child emotional and behavioural problems. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 20(7), 341–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-011-0178-0.
Wei, C., & Kendall, P. C. (2014). Parental involvement: Contribution to childhood anxiety and its treatment. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 17(4), 319–339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-014-0170-6.
Weinberg, M. K., & Tronick, E. Z. (1998). Emotional characteristics of infants associated with maternal depression and anxiety. Pediatrics, 102(5 Suppl E), 1298–1304.
Weinstock, M. (2008). The long-term behavioural consequences of prenatal stress. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 32(6), 1073–1086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.03.002.
Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (1997). The impact of events scale- revised. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Woody, C. A., Ferrari, A. J., Siskind, D. J., Whiteford, H. A., & Harris, M. G. (2017). A systematic review and meta-regression of the prevalence and incidence of perinatal depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 219, 86–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.05.003.
Wroble-Biglan, M. C., Dietz, L. J., & Pienkosky, T. V. (2009). Prediction of infant temperament from catecholamine and self-report measures of maternal stress during pregnancy. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 27(4), 374–389. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646830903190912.
Yong-Ping, E., Laplante, D. P., Elgbeili, G., Hillerer, K. M., Brunet, A., O’Hara, M. W., et al. (2015). Prenatal maternal stress predicts stress reactivity at 2 1/2 years of age: The Iowa Flood Study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 56, 62–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.02.015.
Zigmond, A. S., & Snaith, R. P. (1983). The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 67(6), 361–370.
Zijlmans, M. A., Korpela, K., Riksen-Walraven, J. M., de Vos, W. M., & de Weerth, C. (2015a). Maternal prenatal stress is associated with the infant intestinal microbiota. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 53, 233–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.01.006.
Zijlmans, M. A., Riksen-Walraven, J. M., de Vos, W. M., & de Weerth, C. (2015b). Maternal prenatal stress is associated with the infant intestinal microbiota. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 53, 233–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.01.006.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Human and Animal Rights
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
McLean, M.A., Cobham, V.E. & Simcock, G. Prenatal Maternal Distress: A Risk Factor for Child Anxiety?. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 21, 203–223 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-017-0251-4
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-017-0251-4