Over the last 85 years, researchers have defined early childhood leadership (ECL) in various ways (Fox et al., 2015; Fukada et al., 2010; Parten, 1933; Trawick-Smith, 1988; Yamaguchi, 2001). However, despite differing iterations, ECL has been continuously recognized as an important aspect of child development, leading to positive outcomes for young children (Chen, 2023) in both the short- and long-term.

Leadership has been defined as the influence through which one successfully garners the help and support of others to achieve a common goal (Chemers, 2002; Murphy & Johnson, 2011). Although leadership skills are a distinct set of skills, they are supported by social and emotional skills (The Pennsylvania State University, 2016). While research on leadership skills has been conducted, limited studies have examined leadership among young children (Bailey et al., 2017; Chen, 2023; Hailey & Fazio-Brunson, 2020; Noland & Richards, 2015; Trawick-Smith, 1988). Notwithstanding close to nine decades of scholarly inquiry into play leadership among preschool children, a conspicuous gap persists in the empirical investigations concerning this developmental facet. This is particularly noteworthy in light of the significance of leadership during the preschool years as a fundamental constituent of social competence (Chen, 2023). Research suggests that emotional expressiveness and self-regulation are correlated with each other and support leadership skills (Özkan Kunduraci & Yarali Tozduman, 2022). Sociability is also a critical leadership attribute, as are other executive function skills such as planning (organization), communication, and self-efficacy (Abdigapbarova et al., 2016).

Most simply, child leadership can be defined classically as…“[t]he guidance of the others toward a common goal” (Pigors, 1933, p. 140), which is a definition still used in contemporary research (Billsbury et al., 2019). Well-developed leadership skills promote leadership identity and self-regulation in young children, both of which are important to being an industry, organization, or a corporate leader later in a person’s adult life (Danao, 2023; Murphy & Johnson, 2011). The notion of developing leadership identity, subsequent self-regulation among young children, and diplomatic leadership aptitudes, led us to this timely study. Leadership skill development in the preschool years has been identified as an essential aspect of children’s social competence (Chen, 2023), as it promotes decision-making, responsibility, honesty, communication/listening skills, reflective thinking, problem-solving, collaboration/cooperation, kindness, independent mindedness, and resilience (Bailey et al., 2017). Longitudinal studies have linked adult leadership outcomes to childhood experiences that contribute to leadership-relevant skill development (e.g., Reitan & Stenberg, 2019; Strain &Webber, 2017).

The purpose of this study was twofold. The primary purpose was to identify the diplomatic leadership skills exhibited by three children in a preschool classroom, and a secondary purpose was to determine if teacher leadership prompting intervention would increase children’s diplomatic leadership skills. This study contributes to the limited research on ECL by providing insight into how teacher prompts can influence children’s leadership behavior. This issue is significant, given the potentially positive long-term outcomes for children who develop leadership skills as evidenced in the literature (Bailey et al., 2017; Chen, 2023: Friedman et al., 2021; Fox et al., 2015; Fukada et al., 2010; Noland & Richards, 2015; Recchia, 2011; Shin et al., 2004; Trawick-Smith, 1988). Given the paucity of ECL investigations, the present study is notable and of consequence.

Teachers play an important role in children’s leadership skill development process, modeling positive child-teacher interactions as part of their developmentally appropriate practice (Friedman et al., 2021). However, although many teachers describe preschool children’s leadership skills as helpful, many teachers often discourage leadership behavior (Bailey et al., 2017; Fox et al., 2015). Research has suggested that when teachers were provided with training on child leadership, child leadership behaviors were improved (Bailey et al., 2017; Noland & Richards, 2015). Further research suggests that teacher interactions can impact both children’s social emotional and leadership development; because preschool-aged children who display leadership have positive outcomes, teacher interventions that promote early childhood leadership are warranted (Chen, 2023).

Researchers have also postulated that developing leadership skills at a young age facilitates socially competent children who are able to both compromise with and influence their peers (Hailey & Fazio-Brunson, 2020; Shin et al., 2004; Trawick-Smith, 1988). Although leadership skills in preschool-aged children can be desirable, there are certain types of leadership skills that are less than desirable. For instance, Shin et al. (2004) provided examples of negative views of leadership as it relates to social dominance, explaining that there can be a “negative/coercive dimension of peer influence [that] focus on the establishment of power within the group through aggression, bullying, and force-submission sequences” (pp. 302–303). Shin et al. reinforced the importance of ECL, and claimed ECL facilitated skills such as, “negotiating, compromising, and using other prosocial behaviors to influence peers” (2004, p. 303), which is referred to as diplomatic leadership. Prosocial behaviors are behaviors that benefit others, such as helping someone complete a task or cooperating to achieve a goal (Schoeder & Graziano, 2015). Although Shin et al. (2004) claimed that children can be both dominant and prosocial, negative child leadership skills (e.g., bullying, aggression, or rejection) can undermine the learning environment and the well-being of individuals within it. Young leaders, then, can lead in many directions. In tandem, respectful guidance from a knowledgeable teacher can help the child to find a direction that will benefit both the individual and the group (Hailey, 2013). Prosocial behavior is a sought-after positive behavior.

Teachers can help shape and influence children’s social development through their interactions with young children (Lin et al., 2017). When teachers model leadership behaviors, they encourage children to exhibit similar skills. In addition, teachers can facilitate the shifting among young children of preschool age from “peripherals” to “in-betweeners” defined in relationship to the label of preschool-aged children as “centrals” (Fukada et al., 2010; West, 2018). Fukada et al. (2010), found in a study that centrals held a pivotal role in playing with others, meaning that they frequently joined in group play and held a central role; in-betweeners joined in group play on occasion, and sometimes held central roles in playing with others; and peripherals infrequently joined in group play and did not often have a central role in playing with others.

Developmentally appropriate practices support child leadership by promoting child self-regulation, prosocial skills, agency, and voice. Self-regulatory skills can be defined as “the ability to delay gratification, pay attention, and control impulsivity, which “… undergird children’s behavioral adjustment and early learning” (Roy et al., 2014, p. 1). Children who have strong prosocial skills display behaviors that are helpful and demonstrate concern for other people (CTB/McGraw-Hill, 1990). Child agency refers to the process of providing children choice in selecting and carrying out activities (NAEYC, 2023). Child voice refers to providing the space for children to be heard, which is considered a value in equity (Murray, 2019). Attention to early leadership skills, by their nature, connects to all these important elements, which are emphasized in Developmentally Appropriate Practices (DAP). When children display diplomatic leadership skills, they are enacting prosocial skills and practicing self-regulation,, agency, and voice.

Theoretical Framework

As a theoretical framework that undergirds the study, we selected the seminal social participation and leadership engagement framework from Parten (1933). Parten investigated the extent of social participation and leadership in preschool-aged children and described ECL as children who may be directing a group of children, reciprocally directing leadership with a peer, sharing directing, or both directing and following, which were the behavioral categories examined in the present study. Parten’s (1933) concepts are germane and still utilized in current research (Cerrato & Thornton, 2018; Gowdy, 2020; Liu et al., 2020; Shoshani, 2019; Tackett et al., 2020).

Parten’s theory on leadership among preschool children can inform how teachers work with young children by providing insights into the social dynamics and interactions that occur in early childhood. Understanding the stages of social play and interaction (unoccupied play, solitary play, onlooker play, parallel play, associative play, cooperative play), as outlined by Parten (1932), can help teachers create environments that support and encourage children’s social development. For example, teachers can use this knowledge to facilitate cooperative play, encourage positive social interactions, and provide opportunities for children to develop leadership skills in a supportive and inclusive manner. By recognizing and understanding the stages of social play, teachers can tailor their approach to better support young children’s social and emotional development.

Purpose

For the purpose of this study, leadership was defined as the guidance or influence of peers toward a desired goal (Pigors, 1933). The objective, or purpose, of the present study was to examine leadership skills of preschool-aged children in the classroom. Specifically, the authors conducted this investigation to determine how teacher prompting could increase the children’s diplomatic or positive leadership skills. Previous research suggests that child agency (i.e., how children actively seek out, respond to, reflect on, and grow from opportunities to take on leadership roles) can shape the trajectory of leader development (Connon et al., 2024). Given the importance of the positive social behaviors that are needed to support ECL and the benefits to young children’s development, such a study could support the promotion of the positive social skills associated with child leadership. In the current study, the authors specifically targeted the diplomatic leadership behaviors of directing the group or sharing in the directing of the group. Diplomatic leadership behaviors fall under the umbrella of social emotional development, a particular focus in early childhood learning (Pigors, 1933). Early childhood environments are identified as contributing to teaching young children the social and emotional skills they need to get along with peers and adults (Elias et al., 2003; Gresham & Elliot, 1990; Lin et al., 2017). As we were interested in how frequently children exhibited diplomatic leadership behaviors, as well as if teacher prompting could facilitate child leadership, two central research questions guided the present study: (1) Which diplomatic leadership skills are exhibited by children in a preschool classroom? and (2) Would teacher prompting increase diplomatic child leadership skills?

Methods

In this section, we describe the setting, participants, study design, and characteristics of the study. In addition, we address data collection methods and analysis. We utilized a single case research design, and more specifically, a multiple baseline design across children to measure child leadership behaviors and teacher prompting. Author 1 assumed overall responsibility for the integrity of the data, overseeing data collection procedures and confirming the accuracy of the data analysis process.

Setting

The setting for the study was a campus laboratory preschool classroom for four-year-old children, located on a flagship university campus in a southern state. The early childhood laboratory preschool (ECLP) was modeled after the Reggio philosophy (Edwards et al., 2012). At the time this study was conducted (2018), the ECLP enrolled approximately 192 children ranging from age six weeks to four years. A total of 15 classrooms were located in the preschool; each classroom had a teacher and a teacher associate and was staffed according to ratios delineated by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). Overall, 40% of the children enrolled in the center were university faculty/staff children, 10% of the children were from nearby communities, and 50% were children from student families. The facility was tuition-based. At the time of the study, the faculty make-up was as follows: all teachers identified as female, 30% identified as White, and 70% identified as Black.

Sampling

We utilized critical case sampling, which involves “choosing settings, groups, and/or individuals based on specific characteristic(s) because their inclusion provides researchers with compelling insight about a phenomenon of interest” (Collins et al., 2007, p. 272). In the present study, children were included because they lacked leadership skills and were identified as peripherals (Fukada et al., 2010). As per Collins et al., we also utilized convenience sampling. Based on convenience sampling as per Collins et al. (2007), one preschool classroom was selected in which author 3 was conducting an action research study (Mills, 2017). Sixteen four-year-old children were enrolled in the preschool class with two peer lead teachers. The classroom had eight learning areas aligned with the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale – 3rd edition (ECERS-3; Harms et al., 2015). The classroom learning areas included music and movement, dramatic play, math manipulatives, art studio, writing, reading, science, and blocks. The classroom teacher adhered to the overall program at the center which utilized a Reggio-inspired philosophy (Edwards et al., 2012) that allowed for free-choice investigations of the classroom based on the children’s interests. Children had at least 75 min of free-choice play each day.

Participants

Participants in this study included two teachers and three preschool children. Pseudonyms were used to protect the children’s and teachers’ identities.

Teacher Participants

One teacher, Lucy, was a 54-year-old White female who earned a Bachelor of Science in Merchandising and had 17 years’ experience working with preschool children. The second teacher, Sandy, who was author 3, was a 25-year-old White female who earned a Bachelor of Science in Education with pre-K (PK)-3 teacher certification and had two years teaching experience and served as the data collector for this study; data were collected from observations of Lucy’s interaction with the targeted children.

Child Participants

The three children who were selected as participants in the study were all enrolled in the same four-year-old class, were four years old at the time of the study, and were functioning within normal limits according to the Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ; Bricker & Squires, 2017). Children were nominated by their teacher (Lucy) for inclusion based on lack of exhibited leadership behaviors. Mya was four years and nine months old and a White female. Violet was four years and nine months old and a White female. Brandon was four years and five months and White male. Child participants were initially targeted for intervention because they were not observed encouraging others to follow their lead, making suggestions in play with other children, or emphasizing their role in play. The targeted children could be described as peripherals (who did not often have a central role in playing with others) prior to the leadership prompting intervention, as they did not often hold a central role in leading a group in play but were often following others or playing alone.

A measure of children’s baseline diplomatic leadership skills (see Table 1) was collected according to the behavior definitions below. The three child participants were targeted for intervention because they fit within the critical case sampling scheme presented by Collins et al. (2007) in that they did not exhibit leadership behaviors in the classroom during free choice play. The children did not exhibit diplomatic leadership skills in the classroom under the primary researcher’s observations, thus their inclusion in the study. The teacher participant was included in the study based on convenience and purposeful sampling schemes (Collins et al., 2007). The teacher participant and data collector were peer lead teachers in the classroom, a convenient fit for the study. The data collector was familiar with the behaviors and skills of the children in the classroom.

Table 1 Baseline levels of observed child leadership behaviors
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Ethics Statement and Institutional Review Board Statement

Ethics was addressed appropriately. Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval was obtained from the university prior to data collection. After obtaining approval from the university’s IRB, the researchers obtained informed consent from the administration, teachers, and parents. No conflict of interest was present.

Behavior Definitions

The present study measured the behaviors of both children in the classroom and their teacher. Those definitions are provided hereafter.

Child Behaviors

In order to understand the types of diplomatic leadership behaviors the preschool-aged (four-year-olds) exhibited, we created observable, measurable definitions from Parten’s (1933) framework of child leadership behaviors. Specifically, we recorded child behavior across three categories: (a) directed and followed – which was recorded when a child offered ideas of his or her own to a peer, but also followed under the direction of another child without demanding changes being made, such as offering ideas for the height of the castle, but following the instructions of a peer with a different idea; (b) reciprocally directed or shared leadership equally with another child – which was recorded when the child and a peer both demanded one another or the group to meet their ideas, but not necessarily following what the other demanded, such as offering ideas for who should draw the design of the castle but not following when someone suggests the child does it himself; or (c) directing the group – which was recorded when the target child had complete control of the play area, had another child or group of children following his or her ideas, and was looked to for what to do next by the group of children, such as the child directing others as to the roles they will hold in helping to build the castle and the child whom the group is coming to for the plans.

Leadership Prompts

We developed diplomatic leadership prompts through a review of previous research studies on child leadership (see Table 2). Modeling from a teacher includes making suggestions to the child participant to invite others to play or make observations out loud to the child that someone else may want to play (Bailey et al., 2017; The Pennsylvania State University, 2016). Modeling included the teacher using parallel and self-talk to explain actions taking place, such as, “I’m going to invite David to play because he might be able to help me build my castle.” Helping others includes encouraging the targeted children to help others who may need assistance and modeling this type of behavior in an effort to encourage children to help as well when opportunities arise (Fox et al., 2015). An example of this would be encouraging a child to help a peer clean up spilled paint or carry heavy blocks across the classroom. Completing tasks requires the teacher to redirect targeted children to finish a task they may have forgotten they were working on, help them to follow through with plans they created, and prompt them to finish (Fox et al., 2015). The teacher could remind the children of a project started, but may have gotten distracted from finishing. Praise includes giving the targeted children positive feedback for including others in their play, helping others, completing tasks, deciding independently, solving a problem, or any other positive behaviors (The Pennsylvania State University, 2016). Praise can be used to encourage any leadership behaviors exhibited in the children, such as, “I like the way you invited Tina to help you; she may be able to help you finish building the castle.” Decision-making encourages the child participant to make decisions on his or her own or suggests that the child make a plan before beginning a task (Bailey et al., 2017; The Pennsylvania State University, 2016). A teacher can use hinting to encourage the child to make decisions or give a child possible choice to make more thoughtful decisions. Problem solving prompts include asking the children questions linked to solving a problem they are having that may help them come to a solution, repeating the children’s thoughts out loud, and/or helping the children find a solution to a problem (Fox et al., 2015). An example of this may be the teacher suggesting possible solutions or directing the child toward observations being made that would lead the child to a solution to a problem.

Table 2 Leadership prompts and definitions
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Data Collection

We collected data using interval recordings in 20-second intervals for a period of 10-minutes during the children’s free choice center time daily until requirements outlined by What Works Clearinghouse were met (i.e., minimum number of observations, stability of baseline; Kratochwill et al., 2010). All 28 observations were video recorded by author 3 while in the classroom. The data sheet used for recording observations outlined the three possible behaviors the child may exhibit and was marked for each 20-second interval. The child behaviors include the following: both directing and following; reciprocally directing or sharing leadership equally with another child; or directing the group (see Behavior Definitions, for a full description of Child Behaviors). The data sheet also outlined six diplomatic leadership prompts, which included modeling, helping others, completing tasks, praise, decision making, or problem solving (see Behavior Definitions, for a full description of Leadership Prompts). Each time the teacher participant used a diplomatic leadership prompt with the child participant, it was marked. Data were summarized for each category by tallying the number of each behavior observed divided by the total number of intervals to generate a percentage.

Observation Procedure

One of the classroom teachers, author 3, Sandy, videotaped all 28 sessions using a laptop. Prior to free choice center time, the laptop was set in the free play center area, and the recording began for a 10-minute period. Author 3 moved the laptop to ensure that the target child was captured on the videotape, along with the other children with whom the participant may have been playing. Separate recordings were taken for each of the three targeted children during each session. As previous research has demonstrated that multiple 10-min observations are sufficient to reach dependability (Volpe et al., 2009), we collected 10-min samples during the first 10-mins of the free choice play period. The authors selected a consistent time each day, at the beginning of free choice play, and varied the order of recording for each child participant.

Experimental Conditions

We collected data across a baseline condition. In addition, we collected data during the Leadership Prompting Intervention condition.

Baseline

The purpose of baseline observations was to measure each child’s diplomatic leadership behaviors prior to introducing the Leadership Prompting Intervention. The following information represents each target child’s usual behavior, as it relates to leadership, as identified by the classroom teacher.

For example, Mya was selected because she usually arrived at school about 10 min into morning investigations and chose the learning area, dramatic play, which is closest to the door and where her classmates were already engaged in play. During play, Mya often followed two other classmates to whichever learning area they moved, even if she was in the middle of playing or working on a project.

Violet was selected as she typically scanned the classroom before deciding where she would like to initially play for the morning; Violet usually found one learning area to play in but was not successful in inviting others to join in her play. She either joined others in their play or played alone.

Brandon was selected for inclusion because he usually picked one learning area to play in and quickly changed his mind if he noticed there was something more exciting happening in another area. Brandon did not often engage in meaningful play for an extended period of time because of his constant transition through learning areas. Brandon often left projects unfinished in an effort to follow others in their play.

Peer lead teachers, Lucy and Sandy, typically engaged in play and positive interactions with all children in the classroom. When opportunities arose, the teachers used their knowledge of child development to encourage the children’s prosocial behaviors during play. No changes to the children’s routines or activities were made during the baseline phase.

Leadership Prompting Intervention

Prior to the intervention, the participating teacher reviewed the behavior definitions of children’s diplomatic leadership (modified from Parten, 1933), and a collection of prompts aimed at increasing child leadership behaviors (herein referred to as leadership prompts) to use with the targeted children to increase their diplomatic leadership behaviors. The teacher was given the six prompts she would provide to the children to increase their diplomatic leadership skills in the classroom setting: modeling, helping others, completing tasks, praise, decision making, and problem solving (modified from Fox et al., 2015; The Pennsylvania State University, 2016; see Behavior Definitions, for a full description of Leadership Prompts). We delivered these prompts to each child after establishing a stable baseline, and they were used during free-choice investigations during typical preschool classroom activities. No changes were made to the children’s routines or activities during the intervention phase.

Experimental Design

The present study employed a single case research experimental design, using a multiple baseline design across children, to measure child leadership behaviors and teacher prompting in order to measure the impact of a leadership prompting intervention (independent variable) on children’s diplomatic leadership behaviors (dependent variable). Single case research is desirable when the researchers are, “attempting to change the behavior of an individual or a small group of individuals and wishes to document that change” (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006, p. 318). Specifically, we selected a multiple-baseline design because it allowed us to apply the diplomatic leadership prompting intervention to each target child in succession (Kazdin, 2011). Experimental control was illustrated through the leadership prompting intervention applied to each participant across different points in time (Kazdin, 2011). Data were collected during baseline and intervention phases for at least five data points during each phase of research, in accordance with the standards set forth in the What Works Clearinghouse: Single-Case Design Technical Documentation (Kratochwill et al., 2010).

Interobserver Agreement

The reliability observer was another teacher certified in PreK through 3rd grade with two years of teaching experience. She was trained through written instructions and video training with the primary researcher who assumed responsibility for reliability training. In addition, Author 1 assumed overall responsibility for the integrity of the data, managing data collection procedures, and confirming the accuracy of the data collection and analysis process. Author 2 confirmed the process used. During the training period, the two observers viewed a 10-minute video together, sitting side-by-side and recorded child and teacher behaviors, according to the behavior definitions. Following the initial viewing, any discrepancies were further explained. The two observers then reviewed another 10-minute video together and reached 89% agreement for overall baseline data. Standards set forth by the What Works Clearinghouse (Kratochwill et al., 2010) stipulate that interobserver agreement (IOA) must meet a minimum threshold of at least 80%. Additionally, IOA must be conducted on at least 20% of sessions across both baseline and intervention phases (Kratochwill et al., 2010). We calculated the IOA using point-by-point reliability with the formula agreements/agreements plus disagreements x 100 for occurrence, nonoccurrence, and overall agreement (Harris & Lahey, 1978; Kazdin, 2011). A certified early childhood teacher conducted reliability observations with the primary researcher (author 3). The observations were conducted concurrently by watching the 10-minute video recordings during baseline and intervention phases.

Both Directing and Following

For directing and following for Violet, overall agreement averaged 100% (range, 100–100%), occurrence agreement averaged 100% (range, 100–100%), and nonoccurrence agreement averaged 100% (range, 100–100%). For both directing and following for Brandon, overall agreement averaged 100% (range, 100–100%), occurrence agreement averaged 100% (range, 100–100%), and nonoccurrence agreement averaged 100% (range, 100–100%). For both directing and following for Mya, overall agreement averaged 100% (range, 100–100%), occurrence agreement averaged 100% (range, 100–100%), and nonoccurrence agreement averaged 100% (range, 100–100%).

Reciprocally Directing or Sharing Leadership

For reciprocally directing and following for Violet, overall agreement averaged 94% (range, 87–100%), occurrence agreement averaged 89% (range, 77–100%), and nonoccurrence agreement averaged 90% (range, 80–100%). For reciprocally directing and following for Brandon, overall agreement averaged 90% (range, 80–100), occurrence agreement averaged 88% (range, 75–100%), and nonoccurrence agreement averaged 75% (range, 50–100%). For reciprocally directing and following for Mya, overall agreement averaged 92% (range, 83–100%), occurrence agreement averaged 91% (range, 81–100%), and nonoccurrence agreement averaged 72% (range, 44–100%).

Directing the Group

For directing the group for Violet, overall agreement averaged 92% (range, 90–93%), occurrence agreement averaged 59% (range, 33–84%), and nonoccurrence agreement averaged 85% (range, 77–93%). For directing the group for Brandon, overall agreement averaged 90% (range, 80–100%), occurrence agreement averaged 78% (range, 55–100%), and nonoccurrence agreement averaged 87% (range, 73–100%). For directing the group for Mya, overall agreement averaged 92% (range, 83–100%), occurrence agreement averaged 75% (range, 50–100%), and nonoccurrence agreement averaged 94% (range, 88–100%).

For teacher prompting for Violet, overall agreement averaged 84% (range, 80–87%), occurrence agreement averaged 77% (range, 71–83%), and nonoccurrence agreement averaged 95% (range, 90–100%). For teacher prompting for Brandon, overall agreement averaged 88% (range, 83–93%), occurrence agreement averaged 82% (range, 76–88%), and nonoccurrence agreement averaged 89% (range, 88–90%). For teacher prompting for Mya, overall agreement averaged 84% (range, 80–87%), occurrence agreement averaged 78% (range, 73–83%), and nonoccurrence agreement averaged 78% (range, 67–89%).

Results

The purpose of this study was twofold: (1) to identify the diplomatic leadership skills exhibited by children in a preschool classroom, and (2) determine if teacher leadership prompting intervention would increase children’s diplomatic leadership skills (Murphy & Johnson, 2011), which were organized according to the framework provided by Parten (1933) – both directing and following, reciprocally directing or sharing leadership and directing the group. The results suggest that the teacher leadership prompting intervention increased some children’s diplomatic leadership behaviors (i.e., child directing the group) while others were not affected (i.e., both directing and following, and reciprocally directing or sharing leadership (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Percentage of observed intervals with child directing and teacher leadership prompting across baseline and intervention for all target children

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Research Question 1. Children’s Leadership Skills

During the baseline observation, we observed the target children engaging in leadership behaviors. Those leadership behaviors are aligned to Parten’s findings (1933), at varying levels.

Both Directing and Following

During baseline, the overall average of both directing and following across all three children averaged < 1%. Specifically, Violet was observed engaging in both directing and following an average of 1% (range, 0–6%); neither Brandon nor Mya were observed engaging in both directing and following.

Reciprocally Directing or Sharing Leadership

During baseline, the overall average of reciprocally directing or sharing leadership across all three children averaged 14%. Specifically, Violet was observed engaging in reciprocally directing and following or sharing leadership an average of 15% (range, 0–40%); Brandon was observed engaging in both reciprocally directing and following or sharing leadership an average of 22% (range, 0–40%); and Mya was observed engaging in reciprocally directing and following or sharing leadership an average of 7% (range, 0–27%).

Directing the Group

During baseline, the overall average of directing the group across all three children averaged 5%. Specifically, Violet was observed directing the group an average of 5% (range, 0–20%); Brandon was observed directing the group an average of 8% (range, 0–30%); and Mya was observed directing the group an average of 3% (range, 0–10%).

Research Question 2. Impact of Teacher Prompting on Children’s Leadership Skills

During the Leadership Prompting Intervention, the teacher increased her leadership prompting. Subsequently, all three children increased their diplomatic leadership skills of directing the group.

Teacher Prompting

During baseline for Violet, the teacher prompting for directing the group averaged 30% (range, 13–43%); when the intervention was applied, the average teacher prompting was 65% (range, 57–83%). This represents a 35-percentage point increase. During baseline for Brandon, the teacher prompting averaged 33% (range, 7–53%); when the intervention was applied, the average teacher prompting was 62% (range, 57–70%). This represents a 29-percentage point increase. During baseline for Mya, the teacher prompting averaged 17% (range, 0–37%); when the intervention was applied, the teacher prompting averaged 71% (range, 63–83%). This represents a 54-percentage point increase.

Directing the Group

During the teacher leadership prompting intervention, the overall average of directing the group across all three children averaged 23%. During baseline for Violet, directing the group averaged 5% (range, 0–20%); when the leadership prompting intervention was applied, the average of directing the group was 31% (range, 3–57%). This represents a 29-percentage point increase. During baseline for Brandon, directing the group averaged 8% (range, 0–30%); when the leadership prompting intervention was applied, the average of directing the group was 20% (range, 0–40%). This represents a 12-percentage point increase. During baseline for Mya, directing the group averaged 3% (range, 0–10%); when the leadership prompting intervention was applied, the average of directing the group was 19% (range, 10–33%). This represents a 16-percentage point increase.

Discussion

The two-fold purpose of the present study was to identify the diplomatic leadership behaviors in three preschool-aged children identified as peripherals through examination of teacher leadership prompts. We first sought to determine what diplomatic leadership skills preschool children exhibited in the classroom; then, we sought to determine if teacher prompting would increase diplomatic child leadership skills in young children. For the purpose of this study, leadership was defined as the guidance or influence of peers toward a desired goal (Pigors, 1933). As the literature has identified both short-term (Trawick-Smith, 1988) and long-term (Connon et al., 2024; Murphy & Johnson, 2011; Reitan & Stenberg, 2019; Strain & Webber, 2017; The Pennsylvania State University, 2016) benefits of leadership skills, cultivating diplomatic leadership in young children of preschool age is a worthy pursuit.

Research Question 1. Children’s Leadership Skills

Results from the present study indicate that, for the children examined in this study, diplomatic leadership behaviors were infrequent during free choice center time. During baseline, all three children engaged in reciprocally directing or sharing leadership roles with a peer during play most frequently, followed by directing the group. Directing and following was the least observed by all three children during baseline. The three targeted children spent much of their free choice center time following the lead of another child or group of children and not making many independent decisions for him or herself. These children were initially targeted for intervention, as they were not observed encouraging others to follow their lead, making suggestions in play, or emphasizing their role in play. This may be for a variety of reasons, including being comfortable following the lead of other children and/or not being encouraged to take a leadership role by their teacher.

Consistent with the roles defined in Fukada et al. (2010), the targeted children could be described as peripherals (who did not often have a central role in playing with others) prior to the leadership prompting intervention, as they did not often hold a central role in leading a group in play but were often following others or playing alone. Following the implementation of the Leadership Prompting Intervention, the children could be categorized as in-betweeners because they sometimes held a central role in playing with peers. The results of the present study are important, because, while they did not become centrals holding a central role in play, they did increase their leadership behaviors to the degree that they could be described as children who sometimes held a central leadership role.

Research Question 2. Teacher Prompting

The teacher was variable in her use of leadership prompts across the targeted children during the baseline observations. This indicated that while the teacher had the skills in her repertoire, she was not systematically using these prompts to promote child leadership. Following the Leadership Prompting Intervention, all three children engaged most frequently in reciprocally directing or sharing leadership roles with a peer during play, followed by directing the group, and engaged in both directing and following with the least frequency. The children were successful at becoming leaders, as defined by Parten (1933) through their “[t]he guidance of the others toward a common goal” (p. 140), using diplomatic strategies (Shin et al., 2004). The children were able to compromise with a peer on their ideas or follow a peer’s lead in order to interact positively (Bailey et al., 2017; Fukada et al., 2010; Parten, 1933; Trawick-Smith, 1988).

The teacher used six prompts she would provide to the children to increase their diplomatic leadership skills in the classroom setting: modeling, helping others, completing tasks, praise, decision making, and problem solving (modified from Fox et al., 2015; The Pennsylvania State University, 2016; see Behavior Definitions, for a full description of Leadership Prompts).

Consistent with Parten’s (1933) definition of the diplomatic leader, a successful leader must both lead a group and accept peers’ suggestions in order to sustain the friendship. According to Trawick-Smith (1988), in order to sustain positive relationships with peers, children should develop leadership skills that are accepting of the ideas and suggestions of everyone in the group but be able to execute the ideas into play to be a successful leader. Shin et al. (2004) addressed the importance of prosocial behaviors, such as negotiating and compromising, to develop this type of diplomatic leader.

Similar to Fox et al. (2015), the teacher participant learned the benefits of leadership skill development in preschool-aged children in order to encourage the behaviors through teacher-child interactions, which resulted in an increase in teacher leadership prompting. Consistent with Murphy and Johnson’s research (2011), these positive interactions and reinforcement helped increase the children’s leadership behaviors in the classroom. Murphy and Johnson stress the importance of early learning experiences in a child’s life to foster a positive leadership identity and increased confidence in leading others. The children in this study exhibited increased leadership abilities but also took others’ ideas into consideration in their play. Author 3, the teacher participant in the study, praised and encouraged leadership skills in each of the participating children, showing consistency with the research completed by Bailey et al. (2017). Once the teacher was aware of the prosocial behaviors she could develop in the children through prompting, she emphasized this behavior in the classroom. Contrary to the research conducted by Fox et al. (2015), the teacher praised students and encouraged them. Certainly, there remains a need for additional research in the area of teacher perspectives of leadership behaviors in young children (Lee et al., 2005).

The leadership prompts selected for the Leadership Prompting Intervention are consistent with Noland and Richards’s (2015) research. For example, the teacher participant modeled many of the prompts, such as helping others, completing tasks, decision making, or problem solving. These are qualities that the teacher participant exhibited in the classroom through modeling and self-talk, which related to the interactions and prompts she subsequently used with the children. Strong leadership abilities foster a sense of leadership identity and self-discipline in young children, qualities essential for assuming leadership roles within industries, organizations, or corporations later in adulthood (Danao, 2023; Murphy & Johnson, 2011).

Limitations

We note several limitations in this study. One limitation for the present study was the potential for bias in the selection of the participant sample. As the third author was also a lead teacher in the classroom where the study took place, it is possible that she may have been biased in her selection of children. The researcher may have influenced the teacher participant in her implementation of the intervention due to being in the classroom. Additionally, a possible limitation was that classroom enrollment was actually below NAEYC ratios of child to adult; however, only three children in the classroom were included.

A Conflict with instructional time was identified as another limitation in the present study. The 10-minute video recordings were difficult to attain during some sessions. Recording intervals interfered with instructional time and behavior management in the classroom resulting from the teacher participant being restricted to implementing the intervention with the child and/or group of children with which the child participant chose to play.

While this research did track the use of teacher prompting, we did not track the specific prompts used (modeling, helping others, completing tasks, praise, decision making, and problem solving). Future research should more precisely measure not only the amount of teacher prompting but the prompts used to determine which prompts yielded the greatest gains in child leadership behaviors.

As with any single case research design, generalization for the present study is limited (Kazdin, 2011). Diffusion of treatment may have been a limitation in the present study. Data were collected from each of the targeted children at different times, and intervention was implemented with each of the targeted children at different times. As the children were allowed to play together, targeted children who had not received treatment may have heard the prompts being delivered to another participant, thus increasing their leadership behaviors before data were collected. Additionally, the sample consisted of all children of the same race, a potential fourth limitation.

Implications

Implementing the leadership prompting intervention increased the amount of prompts the teacher participant provided to the children in the class, thus increasing the amount of leadership behaviors the children used during play. As previous research suggests that child agency (i.e., how children actively seek out, respond to, reflect on, and grow from opportunities to take on leadership roles) can shape the trajectory of leader development (Connon et al., 2024), interventions that focus on modeling leadership skills can build a firm foundation for later leadership roles and better developed diplomatic leadership skills. The present study increased the teacher participant’s awareness of her interactions with the children and helped her build her repertoire of research-based skills (Bailey, 2017) that were easily implemented in the classroom.

Early childhood teachers should actively facilitate interactions with young children to promote prosocial behaviors (Shin et al., 2004). Leadership prompts, such as those used in this study, can be modeled through interactions in the classroom, on the playground, or in the cafeteria to encourage leadership behaviors among preschool children.

In conclusion, the integration of developmentally appropriate practices in this study underscores the promotion of child leadership through the cultivation of essential qualities such as self-regulation, prosocial skills, agency, and voice. Defined as the capacity to delay gratification, pay attention, and control impulsivity, self-regulatory skills form the foundational basis for children’s behavioral adjustment and early learning (Roy et al., 2014, p. 1). Strong prosocial skills, characterized by helpful behaviors and concern for others (CTB/McGraw-Hill, 1990), contribute significantly to a child’s developmental journey. Child agency, involving the provision of choices in activities (NAEYC, 2023), and child voice, allowing children to be heard as a value in equity (Murray, 2019), further enrich the developmental landscape. It is noteworthy that early leadership skills encompass and intertwine with these vital elements, all of which are accentuated within the framework of Developmentally Appropriate Practices (DAP). Hence, when children exhibit diplomatic leadership skills, they are actively engaging in the practice of self-regulation, prosocial skills, agency, and voice.

Future Research

A limited number of research studies have focused on leadership in early childhood (Bailey et al., 2017; Chen, 2023: Fox et al., 2015; Friedman et al., 2021; Fukada et al., 2010; Noland & Richards, 2015; Recchia, 2011; Shin et al., 2004; Trawick-Smith, 1988); thus, this current study adds to this corpus of available literature. Simply put, leadership behaviors among preschool children can promote prosocial behaviors. Future research should focus on the importance of developing leadership skills during the early years, as leadership development has long-term implications (Murphy & Johnson, 2011), including the development of social skills (Shin et al., 2004).

While the present study identified teacher leadership prompts that increased leadership skills in children, this study did not focus on developing children’s understanding of the construct of leadership or its importance (Bailey et al., 2017). Previous research (Bailey et al., 2017) identified tenets of leadership (responsibility, honesty, communication/listening, reflective thinking, problem solving, collaboration/cooperation, kindness, independent mindedness, and resilience) and teachers successfully prompted these behaviors to increase child leadership traits.

Understanding a teacher’s perspective of leadership in young children also warrants further research. Lee et al. (2005) focused on teachers who held positive views of child leadership, noting teacher interactions with children that supported child leadership. In contrast Fox et al. (2015) found that teachers discouraged leadership skills in children, viewing leadership traits negatively. These studies suggest that the teacher’s perspective of child leadership can impact whether teachers support or suppress children’s leadership skills.

Further study is warranted on leadership tactics used by young children, specifically examining diplomatic versus bullying tactics. As the focus of the present study was to facilitate diplomatic leadership, we did not conduct large scale observations across multiple sites in order to gain an understanding of the current state of child leadership. Future research should examine how prevalent bully leadership skills are in preschool-aged children and interventions to transform these behaviors. Additionally, longitudinal studies following a child’s leadership skills across time could inform the EC field.

Conclusions

In this study, teacher prompting behaviors of modeling, helping others, completing tasks, praise, decision making, and problem solving increased the leadership skill of directing a group in preschool-aged children. This study adds to the limited body of research that is available in the area of early childhood leadership. Leadership in the classroom has been a topic of research since Parten’s study in 1933 and should continually be studied as it holds significance to a child’s social development (Lee et al., 2005) and to group processes within the classroom (Hailey, 2013). Continuing to add to the existing body of literature on leadership development is important, as early childhood professionals can purposefully refine classroom practices to recognize and support future generations of leaders (Murphy & Johnson, 2011).