Skip to main content
Log in

Fostering Collective Growth and Vitality Following Acts of Moral Courage: A General System, Relational Psychodynamic Perspective

  • Published:
Journal of Business Ethics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to explore a critical paradox related to the expression of moral courage in organizations, which is that although morally courageous acts are aimed at fostering collective growth, vitality, and virtue, their initial result is typically one of collective unease, preoccupation, or lapse, reflected in the social ostracism and censure of the courageous member and message. Therefore, this article addresses the questions of why many organizational groups suffer stagnation or decline rather than growth and vitality following acts of moral courage, and what can be done to ameliorate this outcome. A general system, relational psychodynamic perspective through which organizational group members might receive and respond to acts of moral courage is offered, and seven insights emerging from this perspective for fostering collective growth and vitality following acts of moral courage are provided.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Agazarian, Y. M. (1992). A systems approach to the group-as-a whole. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 42(3), 177–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Agazarian, Y. M. (1993). Systems theory and small groups. In I. Kaplan & B. Sadock (Eds.), Comprehensive textbook of group psychotherapy (3rd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Argyris, C. (1977). Double look learning in organizations. Harvard Business Review, 55(5), 115–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1974). Theory in practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1996). Organizational learning: Theory, method, and Practice (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armenakis, A. A. (2002). Boisjoly on ethics, An interview with Roger M. Boisjoly. Journal of Management Inquiry, 11(3), 274–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashbach, C., & Schermer, V. L. (2005). Object relations, the self, and the group: A conceptual paradigm (original work published 1987). New York: Routledge.

  • Bardoel, E., & Haslett, T. (2004). Success to the successful: The use of systems thinking tools in teaching OB. Organization Management Journal, 1(2), 112–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, N. W., & Vogel, E. F. (1960). The emotionally disturbed child as the family scapegoat. In N. W. Bell & E. F. Vogel (Eds.), A modern introduction to the family (pp. 382–397). New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bidhan, L., Parmar, R., Freeman, E., Harrison, J. S., Wicks, A. C., Purnell, L., & de Colle, S. (2010). Stakeholder theory: The state of the art. The Academy of Management Annals, 4(1), 403–445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bion, W. R. (1984). Attention and interpretation (original work published 1970). London: Karnac Books.

  • Bion, W. R. (1989). Experiences in groups and other papers (original work published 1961). New York: Routledge.

  • Burnes, B. (2005). Complexity theories and organizational change. International Journal of Management Reviews, 7(2), 73–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiva, R., Grandío, A., & Alegre, J. (2010). Adaptive and generative learning: Implications from complexity theories. International Journal of Management Reviews, 12(2), 114–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Comer, D. R., & Vega, G. (2011). Introduction: Why moral courage matters in organizations. In D. R. Comer & G. Vega (Eds.), Moral courage in organizations: Doing the right thing at work (pp. 4–15). Armon, NY: M.E. Sharpe Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Constantine, L. L. (1986). Family paradigms: The practice of theory in family therapy. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Constantine, L. L. (1993). Work organization: Paradigms for project management and organization. Communications of the ACM, 36(10), 35–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Czander, W. M. (1993). The psychodynamics of work and organizations: Theory and application. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Board, R. (1978). The psychoanalysis of organizations: A psychoanalytic approach to behaviour in groups and organizations. London: Tavistock Publications.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Detert, J. R., & Treviño, L. K. (2010). Speaking up to higher ups: How supervisor and skip-level leaders influence employee voice. Organization Science, 21, 249–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, M. A. (1986). Resistance to change: A psychoanalytic critique of Argyris and Schon’s contributions to organization theory and intervention. Journal of Management Studies, 23(3), 543–562.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ethics Resource Centre. (2013). National business ethics survey ® of the U.S. workforce. Arlington, VA: Author. http://connects.ethics.org/newsite/research/eci-research/nbes.

  • Emery, F. E., & Trist, E. L. (1969). Socio-technical systems. In F. E. Emery (Ed.), Systems thinking (pp. 281–296). Harmondsworth: Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferenczi, S. (1916). Contributions to psychoanalysis. Boston: Richard Badger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, C. K. (1968). Concerning the nature of human systems and the consultant’s role. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 4, 179–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, J., Jordan, J., & Miller, J. (2000). Women and the workplace: Applications of a psychodynamic theory. The American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 60(3), 243–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foley, V. D. (1984). An introduction to family therapy. New York: Grune & Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, R. E. (1994). The politics of stakeholder theory: Some future directions. Business Ethics Quarterly, 4(4), 409–421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, R. E., Harrison, J. S., & Wicks, A. C. (2007). Managing for stakeholders: Survival, reputation and success. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, R. E., Wicks, A. C., & Bidhan, P. (2004). Stakeholder theory and “The Corporate Objective Revisited”. Organization Science, 15(3), 364–369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freud, S. (1955). Group psychology and the analysis of the ego. In J. Strachey (Ed./Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 18, pp. 65–144, original work published 1921). London: Hogarth Press.

  • Freud, S. (1955). Beyond the pleasure principle. In J. Strachey (Ed./Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 18, pp. 3–64, original work published 1920). London: Hogarth Press.

  • Ganzarain, R. (1992). Introduction to object relations group therapy. International Journal of Group Therapy, 42(2), 205–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerson, M. J. (2010). The embedded self: An integrative psychodynamic and systemic perspective on couples and family therapy (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gini, A. (2011). A short primer on moral courage. In D. R. Comer & G. Vega (Eds.), Moral courage in organizations: Doing the right thing at work (pp. 3–12). Armon, NY: M.E. Sharpe Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldenberg, H., & Goldenberg, I. (2013). Family therapy: An overview (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gould, L. J. (2006). Introduction. In L. J. Gould, L. F. Stapley, & M. Stein (Eds.), The systems psychodynamics of organizations (pp. 1–16). London: Karnac.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gould, L. J., Stapley, L. F., & Stein, M. (2006). The systems psychodynamics of organizations. London: Karnac.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossmark, R. (2007). The edge of chaos: Enactment, disruption, and emergence in group psychotherapy. Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 17(4), 479–499.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hannah, S. T., Avolio, B. J., & Walumbwa, F. O. (2011). Relationships between authentic leadership, moral courage, and ethical and pro-social behaviors. Business Ethics Quarterly, 21(4), 555–578.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hannah, S. T., Sweeney, P. J., & Lester, P. B. (2010). The courageous mind-set: A dynamic personality system approach to courage. In C. L. S. Pury & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The Psychology of Courage (pp. 125–148). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hazy, J. K., & Uhl-Bien, M. (2015). Towards operationalizing complexity leadership: How generative, administrative and community-building leadership practices enact organizational outcomes. Leadership, 11(1), 79–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirschhorn, L. (1990). The workplace within: Psychodynamics of organizational life. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirschhorn, L., & Gilmore, T. (1980). The application of family therapy concepts to influencing organizational behavior. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25(1), 18–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirschhorn, L., & Young, D. R. (1991). Dealing with the anxiety of working: Social defenses as coping strategy. In M. F. R. Kets de Vries & Associates (Eds.), Organizations on the couch: Clinical perspectives on organizational behavior and change (pp. 215–242). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

  • Jaques, E. (1955). Social systems as a defence against persecutory and depressive anxiety. In N. M. Klein, P. Heimann, & R. E. Money-Kyrle (Eds.), New directions in psycho-analysis (pp. 478–498). New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaques, E. (1976). A general theory of bureaucracy. London: Heinemann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jordan, J. V. (2008). Commitment to connection in a culture of fear. In J. V. Jordan (Ed.), The power of connection: Recent developments in relational-cultural theory (pp. 235–254). New York: Haworth Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keats, J. (1974). Letter to George and Thomas Keats. In the Norton anthology of English literature (Vol. 2, pp. 704–705, original work published in 1817). New York: Norton.

  • Kets de Vries, M. F. R. (1991). Exploding the myth that organizations and executives are rational. In M. F. R. Kets de Vries & Associates (Eds.), Organizations on the couch: Clinical perspectives on organizational behavior and change (pp. 1–24). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

  • Kets de Vries, M. F. R. (2006). The leader on the couch: A clinical approach to changing people and organizations. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kets de Vries, M. F. R. (2007). Decoding the team conundrum: The eight roles executives play. Organizational Dynamics, 36(1), 28–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kets de Vries, M. F. R. (2014). The group coaching conundrum. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 12(1), 79–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kets de Vries, M., & Balazs, K. (2005). Organizations as optical illusions: A clinical perspective on organizational consultation. Organizational Dynamics, 34(1), 1–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kilburg, R. R. (1995). Integrating psychodynamic and systems theories in organization development practice. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 47(1), 28–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kilburg, R. R. (2000). Executive coaching: Developing managerial wisdom in a world of chaos. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, M. (1975). Infantile anxiety situations reflected in a work of art and in the creative impulse. In M. Klein (Ed.), Love, guilt and reparation and other works (pp. 210–218, original work published 1929). New York: The Free Press.

  • Klein, M. (1975). Love, guilt and reparation. In M. Klein (Ed.), Love, guilt, and reparation and other works 19211945 (pp. 306–343, original work published 1937). New York: The Free Press.

  • Klein, M. (1975). Mourning and its relation to manic-depressive states. In M. Klein (Ed.), Love, guilt and reparation and other works, 1921–1945 (pp. 344–369, original work published 1940). New York: The Free Press.

  • Klein, M. (1975). Notes on some schizoid mechanisms. In M. Klein (Ed.), Envy and gratitude and other works 19461963 (pp. 1–24, original work published 1946). New York: The Free Press.

  • Klein, M. (1975). On the theory of anxiety and guilt. In M. Klein (Ed.), Envy and gratitude and other works 19461963 (pp. 25–42, original work published 1948). New York: The Free Press.

  • Klein, M. (1975). Some theoretical conclusions regarding the emotional life of the infant. In M. Klein (Ed.), Envy and gratitude and other works 19461963 (pp. 61–93, original work published 1952). New York: The Free Press.

  • Klein, M. (1975). Our adult world and its roots in infancy. In Envy and gratitude and other works 19461963 (pp. 247–263, original work published 1959). New York: The Free Press.

  • Knoll, M., & van Dick, R. (2012). Do I hear the whistle…? A first attempt to measure four forms of employee silence and their correlates. Journal of Business Ethics, 113(2), 349–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohn, S. M. (2011). For the greater good: the moral courage of whistleblowers. In D. R. Comer & G. Vega (Eds.), Moral courage in organizations: Doing the right thing at work (pp. 60–74). Armon, NY: M.E. Sharpe Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohut, H. (1977). The restoration of self. New York: International Universities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krantz, J. (2006). Dilemmas of organizational change: A systems psychodynamic perspective. In L. Gould, L. F. Stapely, & M. Stein (Eds.), The systems psychodynamics of organizations: Integrating the group relations approach, psychoanalytic, and open systems perspectives (pp. 133–156). London: H. Karnac (Books) Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • L’Abate, L., Weeks, G., & Weeks, K. (1979). Of scapegoats, strawmen, and scarecrows. International Journal of Family Therapy, 1(1), 86–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levinson, H. (1991). Diagnosing organizations systematically. In. M. F. R. Kets de Vries & Associates (Eds.), Organizations on the couch: Clinical perspectives on organizational behavior and change (pp. 45–64). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

  • Lopez, S. J., Rasmussen, H. N., Skorupski, W. P., Koetting, K., Petersen, S. E., & Yang, Y.-T. (2010). Folk conceptualizations of courage. In C. L. S. Pury & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The psychology of courage (pp. 23–46). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luepnitz, D. A. (1988). The family interpreted: Feminist theory in clinical practice. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luepnitz, D. A. (2002). The family interpreted: Psychoanalysis, feminism, and family therapy. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, G. J. (2011). Faith and moral courage: Why a sense of calling matters. In D. R. Comer & G. Vega (Eds.), Moral courage in organizations: Doing the right thing at work (pp. 65–87). Armon, NY: M.E. Sharpe Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mathews, K. M., White, M. C., & Long, R. G. (1999). Why study the complexity sciences in the social sciences? Human Relations, 52(4), 439–462.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDougall, W. (1920). The group mind. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Menzies, I. E. P. (1960). A case study in the functioning of social systems as a defence against anxiety: A report on a study of the nursing service of a general hospital. Human Relations, 14, 95–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menzies-Lyth, I. E. P. (1989). The dynamics of the social: Selected essays (Vol. 2). London: Free Association Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Menzies-Lyth, I. E. P. (1991). Changing organizations and individuals: Psychoanalytic insights for improving organizational health. In M. F. R. Kets de Vries & Associates (Eds.), Organizations on the couch: Clinical perspectives on organizational behavior and change (pp. 361–378). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

  • Miller, E. J. (1975). Socio-technical systems in weaving 1960–1973: A follow-up study. Human Relations, 28, 349–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, E. J., & Rice, A. K. (1967). Systems of organization: The control of task and sentient boundaries. London: Tavistock.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milliken, F. J., Morrison, E. W., & Hewlin, P. (2003). An exploratory study of employee silence: Issues that employees don’t communicate upward and why. Journal of Management Studies, 40(6), 1453–1476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreno, J. K. (2007). Scapegoating in group psychotherapy. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 57(1), 93–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, E. W. (2014). Employee voice and silence. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1, 173–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osswald, S., Greitemeyer, T., Fischer, P., & Frey, D. (2010). What is moral courage? Definition, explication, and classification of a complex construct. In C. L. S. Pury & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The psychology of courage (pp. 149–164). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palombo, S. R. (1999). The emergent ego: Complexity and coevolution in the psychoanalytic process. Madison, CT: International Universities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parkes, C., & Davis, A. J. (2013). Ethics and social responsibility—Do HR professionals have the ‘courage to challenge’ or are they set to be permanent ‘bystanders’? The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24(12), 2411–2434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powley, E. H. (2009). Reclaiming resilience and safety: Resilience activation in the critical period of crisis. Human Relations, 62(9), 1289–1326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, D. (2010). Philosophical roots of the concept of courage. In C. L. S. Pury & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The psychology of courage (pp. 9–22). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rate, C. R. (2010). Defining the features of courage: A search for meaning. In C. L. S. Pury & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The psychology of courage (pp. 47–66). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rehg, M. T., Miceli, M. P., Near, J. P., & Van Scotter, J. R. (2008). Antecedents and outcomes of retaliation against whistleblowers: Gender differences and power relationships. Organization Science, 19(2), 221–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rice, A. K. (1963). The enterprise and its environment. London: Tavistock Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, K. A. (2004). Systems theory and complexity: Part 1. Emergence: Complexity and Organization, 6(3), 75–79.

  • Roberts, V. Z. (1994). The organization of work: Contributions from group relations training. In A. Obholzer & V. Z. Roberts (Eds.), Unconscious at work: Individual and organizational stress in the human services (pp. 28–38). New York: Routledge.

  • Rubenfeld, S. (2001). Group therapy and complexity theory. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 51(4), 449–472.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scharff, D., & Scharff, J. (1987). Object relations family therapy. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schermer, V. L. (2012a). Group-as-a-whole and complexity theories: Areas of convergence. Part I: Background and literature review. Group Analysis, 45(3), 275–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schermer, V. L. (2012b). Group-as-a-whole and complexity theories: Areas of convergence. Part II: Application to group relations, group analysis, and systems centered therapy. Group Analysis, 45(4), 481–497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schilpzand, P., Hekman, D. R., & Mitchell, T. R. (2015). An inductively generated typology and process model of workplace courage. Organization Science, 26(1), 52–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, S. C. (1991). Managing boundaries in organizations. In. M. F. R. Kets de Vries & Associates (Eds.), Organizations on the couch: Clinical perspectives on organizational behavior and change (pp. 169–190). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

  • Schneider, M., & Somers, M. (2006). Organizations as complex adaptive systems: Implications of complexity theory for leadership research. The Leadership Quarterly, 17, 351–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sekerka, L. E. (2009). Organizational ethics education and training: A review of best practices and their application. International Journal of Training and Development, 13(2), 77–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sekerka, L., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2007). Moral courage in the workplace: moving to and from the desire and decision to act. Business Ethics: A European Review, 16(2), 132–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Serrat, O. (2010). Moral courage in organizations. Washington, D.C.: Asian Development Bank.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shulman, L. (2011). The skills of helping individuals, families, groups, and communities. Belmont, CA: Brooks Cole.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simola, S. (2015). Understanding moral courage through a feminist and developmental ethic of care. Journal of Business Ethics, 130, 29–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sloan, K., & Gavin, J. H. (2010). Human resource management: Meeting the ethical obligations of the function. Business and Society Review, 115, 157–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, K. K., & Berg, D. N. (1987). Paradoxes of group life: Understanding conflict, paralysis, and movement in group dynamics. London: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stapley, L. F. (2006). A large system intervention: The influence of organizational culture. In L. Gould, L. F. Stapely, & M. Stein (Eds.), The systems psychodynamics of organizations: Integrating the group relations approach, psychoanalytic, and open systems perspectives (pp. 157–174). London: H. Karnac (Books) Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stein, H. F. (1996). “She’s driving us nurses crazy?”: On not solving the wrong problem as a consulting organizational psychologist. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 48(1), 17–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trist, E. L., & Bamforth, K. W. (1951). Some social and psychological consequences of the longwall method of coal-cutting. Human Relations, 4(1), 3–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vince, R. (2002). The impact of emotion on organizational learning. Human Resource Development International, 5(1), 73–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Von Bertalanffy, L. (1968). General system theory. New York: Braziller.

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Bertalanffy, L. (1969). General system theory and psychiatry: An overview. In W. Gray, F. J. Duhl, & N. D. Rizzo (Eds.), American Handbook of Psychiatry (pp. 33–45). Boston: Little Brown and Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, K., Franklin, C., & Streeter, C. L. (1998). New directions in system theory: Chaos and complexity. Social Work, 43(4), 357–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winnicott, D. W. (1960). The theory of the parent–infant relationship. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 41, 585–595.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winnicott, D. W. (1965). The maturational processes and the facilitating environment. New York: International University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worline, M. C. (2010). Understanding the role of courage in social life. In C. L. S. Pury & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The psychology of courage (pp. 209–226). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sheldene Simola.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Simola, S. Fostering Collective Growth and Vitality Following Acts of Moral Courage: A General System, Relational Psychodynamic Perspective. J Bus Ethics 148, 169–182 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3014-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3014-0

Keywords

Navigation