Management and Income Inequality: A Review and Conceptual Framework
Abstract
Income inequality in the US has now reached levels not seen since the 1920s. Management, as a field of scholarly inquiry, has the potential to contribute in significant ways to our understanding of recent inequality trends. We review and assess recent research, both in the management literature and in other fields. We then delineate a conceptual framework that highlights the mechanisms through which business practice (and, indirectly, business pedagogy and scholarship) may be linked to income inequality. We then outline four general areas in which management scholars are uniquely positioned to contribute to ongoing research: (1) data and description, (2) organizational dynamics, (3) collective action, and (4) value flows and tradeoffs. To stimulate future research, we highlight a number of relevant research questions and link these questions to existing management research streams that could be leveraged to address them.
Keywords
Income inequality Wage inequality Economic value creation Value flow analysisNotes
Acknowledgments
We thank Dr. Roger Conaway, School of Business, Tecnologico de Monterrey (ITESM), San Luis Potosi, Mexico, Oliver Laasch, Marie Curie Research Fellow, Manchester Institute of Innovation Research (MIOIR), and Sustainable Consumption Institute, University of Manchester, and colleagues at The University of Texas at Tyler for contributions to the concepts and ideas in this manuscript.
References
- Agle, B. R., Mitchell, R. K., & Sonnenfeld, J. A. (1999). Who matters to CEOs? An investigation of stakeholder attributes and salience, corporate performance, and CEO values. Academy of Management Journal, 42(5), 507–525.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Aguinis, H., Boyd, B. K., Pierce, C. A., & Short, J. C. (2011). Walking new avenues in management research methods and theories: Bridging micro and macro domains. Journal of Management, 37(2), 395–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Alderson, A., & Nielsen, F. (2002). Globalization and the great U-turn: Income inequality trends in 16 OECD countries. American Journal of Sociology, 107(5), 1244–1299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Alvesson, M., & Willmott, H. (Eds.). (1992). Critical management studies. London: Sage Publications Ltd.Google Scholar
- Alvesson, M., & Willmott, H. (2012). Making sense of management: A critical introduction (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
- Axelrod, R. (1984). The evolution of cooperation. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
- Bakija, J., Cole, A., & Heim, B. T. (2012). Jobs and income growth of top earners and the causes of changing income inequality: Evidence from U.S. tax return data. Working Paper, Department of Economics, Williams College.Google Scholar
- Barney, J., Wright, M., & Ketchen, D. J., Jr. (2001). The resource-based view of the firm: Ten years after 1991. Journal of Management, 27(6), 625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Barton, D. (2011). Capitalism for the long term. Harvard Business Review, 89(3), 84–91.Google Scholar
- Bator, F. M. (1957). The simple analytics of welfare maximization. American Economic Review, 47(1), 22–59.Google Scholar
- Besanko, D., Dranove, D., Shanley, M., & Schaefer, S. (2010). Economics of strategy (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
- Bower, J. L., Leonard, H. B., & Paine, L. S. (2011). Global capitalism at risk: What are you doing about it? Harvard Business Review, 89(9), 104–112.Google Scholar
- Bridoux, F., & Stoelhorst, J. W. (2014). Microfoundations for stakeholder theory: Managing stakeholders with heterogeneous motives. Strategic Management Journal, 35(1), 107–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Brief, A. P. (2000). Still servants of power. Journal of Management Inquiry, 9(4), 342–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Brown, M. P., Sturman, M. C., & Simmering, M. J. (2003). Compensation policy and organizational performance: The efficiency, operational, and financial implications of pay levels and pay structure. Academy of Management Journal, 46(6), 752–762.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Burrell, G., & Morgan, G. (1979). Sociological paradigms and organisational analysis: Elements of the sociology of corporate life. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company.Google Scholar
- Cassel, D. (2001). Human rights and business responsibilities in the global marketplace. Business Ethics Quarterly, 11(2), 261–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Cassidy, J. (2009). How markets fail: The logic of economic calamities. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.Google Scholar
- Child, J. (1972). Organization structure, environment and performance: The role of strategic choice. Sociology, 6, 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Chinni, D., & Gimpel, J. (2011). The 12 states of America: Since 1980, income inequality has fractured the nation. Atlantic Monthly, 307(3), 70–71.Google Scholar
- Clegg, S., Carter, C., Kornberger, M., & Schweitzer, J. (2011). Strategy: Theory & practice. London: Sage Publications Ltd.Google Scholar
- Cloutier, C., & Langley, A. (2013). The logic of institutional logics: Insights from French pragmatist sociology. Journal of Management Inquiry, 22(4), 360–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Coleman, J. S. (1990). Foundations of social theory. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
- Collis, D. J., & Montgomery, C. A. (1995). Competing on resources: Strategy in the 1990s. Harvard Business Review, 73(4), 118–128.Google Scholar
- Colvin, A. J. S., Batt, R., & Katz, H. C. (2001). How high performance human resource practices and workforce unionization affect managerial pay. Personnel Psychology, 54(4), 903–934.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Congressional Budget Office. (2011). Trends in the distribution of household income between 1979 and 2007. http://www.cbo.gov/publication/42729.
- D’Aveni, R. A. (2012a). Strategic capitalism: The new economic strategy for winning the capitalist cold war. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
- D’Aveni, R. A. (2012b). When consumers win, who loses? Harvard Business Review, 90(9), 36.Google Scholar
- Deaton, A. (2013). Unwinding inequality. Harvard Business Review, 91(12), 42–42.Google Scholar
- Desai, M. (2012). The incentive bubble. Harvard Business Review, 90(3), 124–132.Google Scholar
- DiMaggio, P. J. (1995). Comments on “What Theory is Not”. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40(3), 391–397.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- DiPrete, T. A., Goux, D., Maurin, E., & Quesnel-Vallee, A. (2006). Work and pay in flexible and regulated labor markets: A generalized perspective on institutional evolution and inequality trends in Europe and the U.S. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 24(3), 311–332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Donaldson, T., & Preston, L. E. (1995). The stakeholder theory of the corporation: Concepts, evidence, and implications. Academy of Management Review, 20(1), 65–91.Google Scholar
- Dunfee, T. W. (2008). Stakeholder theory: Managing corporate social responsibility in a multiple actor context. In A. Crane, A. McWilliams, D. Matten, J. Moon, & D. Siegel (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of corporate social responsibility (pp. 346–362). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
- Dyer, S., Humphries, M., Fitzgibbons, D., & Hurd, F. (2014). Understanding management critically: A student text. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
- Esping-Andersen, G. (2007). Sociological explanations of changing income distributions. American Behavioral Scientist, 50(5), 639–658.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Faulkender, M., Kadyrzhanova, D., Prabhala, N., & Senbet, L. (2010). Executive compensation: An overview of research on corporate practices and proposed reforms. Journal of Applied Corporate Finance, 22(1), 107–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ferguson, N. (2012). Rich America, poor America. Newsweek, 159(4), 42–47.Google Scholar
- Fiol, C. M., & O’Connor, E. J. (2003). Waking up! Mindfulness in the face of bandwagons. Academy of Management Review, 28(1), 54–70.Google Scholar
- Foroohar, R. (2014). Time to talk about the I word. Time, 183(5), 23.Google Scholar
- Frank, R. H., & Cook, P. J. (1995). The winner-take-all society: How more and more Americans compete for ever fewer and bigger prizes, encouraging economic waste, income inequality, and an impoverished cultural life. New York: Martin Kessler Books.Google Scholar
- Freeman, R. E. (1984). Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston: Pitman Publishing, Inc.Google Scholar
- Freeman, R. B. (1996). Toward an apartheid economy? Harvard Business Review, 74(5), 114–121.Google Scholar
- Freeman, R. E. (2010). Managing for stakeholders: Trade-offs or value creation. Journal of Business Ethics, 96, 7–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Freeman, R. E., Harrison, J., Parmar, B., & De Colle, S. (2010). Stakeholder theory: The state of the art. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Galbraith, J. K. (1998). Created unequal: The crisis in American pay. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
- George, J. M. (2014). Compassion and capitalism: Implications for organizational studies. Journal of Management, 40(1), 5–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- George, G., McGahan, A. M., & Prabhu, J. (2012). Innovation for inclusive growth: Towards a theoretical framework and a research agenda. Journal of Management Studies, 49(4), 661–683. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6486.2012.01048.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ghoshal, S. (2005). Bad management theories are destroying good management practices. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 4(1), 75–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Granovetter, M., & Swedberg, R. (2011). The sociology of economic life (3rd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
- Greenwood, R., Oliver, C., Sahlin, K., & Suddaby, R. (Eds.). (2008). The SAGE handbook of organizational institutionalism. London: Sage Publications Ltd.Google Scholar
- Halstead, T. (2006). A homestead act for the twenty-first century. Harvard Business Review, 84(2), 44–45.Google Scholar
- Hambrick, D. C., & Ming-Jer, C. (2008). New academic fields as admittance-seeking social movements: The case of strategic management. Academy of Management Review, 33(1), 32–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hanley, C. (2010). A spatial perspective on rising inequality in the United States. International Journal of Sociology, 40(4), 6–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hasanov, F., & Izraeli, O. (2012). How much inequality is necessary for growth? Harvard Business Review, 90(1/2), 28.Google Scholar
- Heckathorn, D. D. (1996). The dynamics and dilemmas of collective action. American Sociological Review, 61, 250–277.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hillman, A. J., Keim, G. D., & Schuler, D. (2004). Corporate political activity: A review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 30(6), 837–857.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hond, F., Rehbein, K. A., Bakker, F. G. A., & Lankveld, H. K.-V. (2014). Playing on two chessboards: Reputation effects between corporate social responsibility (CSR) and corporate political activity (CPA). Journal of Management Studies, 51(5), 790–813.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hoskisson, R. E., Hitt, M. A., Wan, W. P., & Yiu, D. (1999). Theory and research in strategic management: Swings of a pendulum. Journal of Management, 25(3), 417–456.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Husted, B. W. (2000). The impact of national culture on software piracy. Journal of Business Ethics, 26(3), 197–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ji, Y.-Y., & Oh, W.-Y. (2014). An integrative model of diffusion and adaptation of executive pay dispersion. Journal of Managerial Issues, 26(1), 70–85.Google Scholar
- Johnston, D. C. (Ed.). (2014). Divided: The perils of our growing inequality. New York: The New Press.Google Scholar
- Judge, W. Q., Gaur, A., & Muller-Kahle, M. I. (2010). Antecedents of shareholder activism in target firms: Evidence from a multi-country study. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 18(4), 258–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kalleberg, A. L. (2011). Good jobs, bad jobs: The rise of polarized and precarious employment systems in the United States, 1970s to 2000s. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
- Kaplan, S. N. (2008). Are U.S. CEOs overpaid? Academy of Management Perspectives, 22(2), 5–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Katz, M. L., & Shapiro, C. (1986). Technology adoption in the presence of network externalities. Journal of Political Economy, 94(4), 822–841.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kawachi, I., & Kennedy, B. P. (1997). The relationship of income inequality to mortality: Does the choice of indicator matter? Social Science and Medicine, 45(7), 1121–1127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Keister, L. A. (2014). The one percent. Annual Review of Sociology, 40, 347–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kierzenkowski, R., & Koske, I. (2013). The drivers of labor income inequality—A literature review. Journal of International Commerce, Economics and Policy, 4(1), 1–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kohls, J., & Christensen, S. L. (2002). The business responsibility for wealth distribution in a globalized political-economy: Merging moral economics and Catholic social teaching. Journal of Business Ethics, 35(3), 223–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kollock, P. (1998). Social dilemmas: The anatomy of cooperation. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 183–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Korten, D. C. (2001). When corporations rule the world. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koeler Publishers, Inc., and Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press, Inc.Google Scholar
- Krugman, P., & Wells, R. (2013). Economics (3rd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.Google Scholar
- Kuttner, R. (1996). Everything for sale: The virtues and limits of markets. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
- Kuznets, S. (1953). Shares of upper income groups in income and savings. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research.Google Scholar
- Kuznets, S. (1955). Economic growth and income inequality. American Economic Review, 45(1), 1–28.Google Scholar
- Lanzolla, G., & Suarez, F. F. (2012). Closing the technology adoption-use divide: The role of contiguous user bandwagon. Journal of Management, 38(3), 836–859.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Laplume, A. O., Sonpar, K., & Litz, R. A. (2008). Stakeholder theory: Reviewing a theory that moves us. Journal of Management, 34(6), 1152–1189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Lawrence, T. B., Suddaby, R., & Leca, B. (Eds.). (2009). Institutional work: Actors and agency in institutional studies of organizations. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
- Lazonick, W. (2014). Profits without prosperity. Harvard Business Review, 92(9), 46–55.Google Scholar
- Lemieux, T. (2008). The changing nature of wage inequality. Journal of Population Economics, 21(1), 21–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Levy, F., & Murnane, R. J. (1992). U.S. earnings levels and earnings inequality: A review of recent trends and proposed explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 30(3), 1333–1381.Google Scholar
- Lindblom, C. E. (2001). The market system: What it is, how it works, and what to make of it. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
- Lips, H. (2013). The gender pay gap: Challenging the rationalizations. Perceived equity, discrimination, and the limits of human capital models. Sex Roles, 68(3/4), 169–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Lux, S., Crook, T. R., & Woehr, D. J. (2011). Mixing business with politics: A meta-analysis of the antecedents and outcomes of corporate political activity. Journal of Management, 37(1), 223–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Margolis, J. D., & Walsh, J. P. (2003). Misery loves companies: Rethinking social initiatives by business. Administrative Science Quarterly, 48(2), 268–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Martin, R. L. (2014). The rise (and likely fall) of the talent economy. Harvard Business Review, 92(10), 40–47.Google Scholar
- Martin, J. A., & Davis, K. J. (2010). Stacked deck: Can governance structures explain CEO compensation differences across countries? Academy of Management Perspectives, 24(1), 78–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Matten, D., & Crane, A. (2005). Corporate citizenship: Toward an extended theoretical conceptualization. Academy of Management Journal, 30(1), 166–179.Google Scholar
- Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
- McCall, L., & Percheski, C. (2010). Income inequality: New trends and research directions. Annual Review of Sociology, 36, 329–347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- McDonough, W. J. (1996). The challenge to U.S. business. Harvard Business Review, 74(5), 125.Google Scholar
- Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
- Mishel, L., Schmitt, J., & Shierholz, H. (2014). Wage inequality: A story of policy choices. New Labor Forum, 23(3), 26–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Mitchell, R. K., Agle, B. R., & Wood, D. J. (1997). Towards a theory of stakeholder identification and salience: Defining the principle of who and what really counts. Academy of Management Review, 22(4), 853–886.Google Scholar
- Morgan, S. L., & Cha, Y. (2007). Rent and the evolution of inequality in the late industrial United States. American Behavioral Scientist, 50(5), 677–701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Morris, M. A., & Western, B. (1999). Inequality in earnings at the close of the twentieth century. Annual Review of Sociology, 25(1), 623.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Mrozek, J. R. (1999). Market failures and efficiency in the principles course. Journal of Economic Education, 30(4), 411–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Myles, J., & Myers, K. (2007). Introduction: Who get what and why? Answers from sociology. American Behavioral Scientist, 50(5), 579–583.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Neckerman, K. M., & Torche, F. (2007). Inequality: Causes and consequences. Annual Review of Sociology, 33, 335–357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Nielsen, F., & Alderson, A. S. (1997). The Kuznets curve and the great u-turn: Income inequality in U.S. counties, 1970 to 1990. American Sociological Review, 61(1), 12–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Nkomo, S., & Hoobler, J. M. (2014). A historical perspective on diversity ideologies in the United States: Reflections on human resource management research and practice. Human Resource Management Review, 24(3), 245–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Noah, T. (2012). The great divergence: America’s growing inequality crisis and what we can do about it. New York: Bloomsbury Press.Google Scholar
- Oishi, S., Kesebir, S., & Diener, E. (2011). Income inequality and happiness. Psychological Science, 22(9), 1095–1100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ostas, D. T. (2001). Deconstructing corporate social responsibility: Insights from legal and economic theory. American Business Law Journal, 38, 261–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ostrom, E. (2010). Analyzing collective action. Agricultural Economics, 41(6), 155–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Parker, M. (2002). Against management: Organization in the age of managerialism. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
- Pies, I., Beckmann, M., & Hielscher, S. (2010). Value creation, management competencies, and global corporate citizenship: An ordonomic approach to business ethics in the age of globalization. Journal of Business Ethics, 94(2), 265–278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Pies, I., Beckmann, M., & Hielscher, S. (2014). The political role of the business firm: An ordonomic concept of corporate citizenship developed in comparison with the Aristotelian idea of individual citizenship. Business and Society, 53(2), 226–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Piketty, T. (2014). Capital in the twenty-first century. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Piketty, T., & Saez, E. (2003). Income inequality in the United States, 1913–1998. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118(1), 1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Piketty, T., & Saez, E. (2007). Income and wage inequality in the United States 1913–2002. In A. B. Atkinson & T. Piketty (Eds.), Top incomes over the twentieth century: A contrast between continental European and English-speaking countries (pp. 141–225). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
- Pontusson, J. (2005). Inequality and prosperity: Social Europe vs. liberal America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
- Porter, M. E. (1980). Competitive strategy: Techniques for analyzing industries and competitors. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
- Porter, M. E. (1996). What is strategy? Harvard Business Review, 74(6), 61–78.Google Scholar
- Porter, M. E. (2008). The five competitive forces that shape strategy. Harvard Business Review, 86(1), 78–93.Google Scholar
- Powell, W. W., & DiMaggio, P. J. (Eds.). (1991). The new institutionalism in organizational analysis. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
- Priem, R. L., & Butler, J. E. (2001a). Is the resource-based “view” a useful perspective for strategic management research? Academy of Management Review, 26(1), 22–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Priem, R. L., & Butler, J. E. (2001b). Tautology in the resource-based view and the implications of externally determined resource value: Further comments. Academy of Management Review, 26(1), 57–66.Google Scholar
- Ramos-Rodríguez, A.-R., & Ruíz-Navarro, J. (2004). Changes in the intellectual structure of strategic management research: A bibliometric study of the Strategic Management Journal, 1980–2000. Strategic Management Journal, 25(10), 981–1004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rasche, A. (2007). The paradoxical foundation of strategic management. Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag.Google Scholar
- Reitz, J. G., & Verma, A. (2004). Immigration, race and labor: Unionization and wages in the Canadian labor market. Industrial Relations, 43(4), 835–854.Google Scholar
- Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th ed.). New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
- Rost, K., & Weibel, A. (2013). CEO pay from a social norm perspective: The infringement and reestablishment of fairness norms. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 21(4), 351–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Scherer, A. G., Palazzo, G., & Baumann, D. (2006). Global rules and private actors: Toward a new role of the transnational corporation in global governance. Business Ethics Quarterly, 16(4), 505–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Scherer, A. G., Palazzo, G., & Matten, D. (2014). The business firm as a political actor: A new theory of the firm for a globalized world. Business and Society, 53(2), 143–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Scherer, A. G., Palazzo, G., & Seidl, D. (2013). Managing legitimacy in complex and heterogeneous environments: Sustainable development in a globalized world. Journal of Management Studies, 50(2), 259–284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Schuler, D. A. (2008). Peering in from corporate political activity. Journal of Management Inquiry, 17(3), 162–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Schwandt, T. A. (2000). Three epistemological stances for qualitative inquiry. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed., pp. 189–213). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
- Sen, A. (1992). Inequality reexamined. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
- Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday.Google Scholar
- Serwer, A. (2013). The income gap. Fortune, 168(4), 10.Google Scholar
- Shaw, J. D., Gupta, N., & Delery, J. E. (2002). Pay dispersion and workforce performance: Moderating effects of incentives and interdependence. Strategic Management Journal, 23(6), 491.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Shrivastava, P. (1986). Is Strategic management ideological? Journal of Management, 12(3), 363.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Siegel, P. A., & Hambrick, D. C. (2005). Pay disparities within top management groups: Evidence of harmful effects on performance of high-technology firms. Organization Science, 16(3), 259–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Simpson, B. (2009). Wealth and income inequality: An economic and ethical analysis. Journal of Business Ethics, 89(4), 525–538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Sjöberg, O. (2009). Corporate governance and earnings inequality in the OECD countries 1979–2000. European Sociological Review, 25(5), 519–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Solt, F. (2008). Economic inequality and democratic political engagement. American Journal of Political Science, 52(1), 48–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Stewart, M. (2009). The management myth: Why the experts keep getting it wrong. New York: W. W. Norton and Company.Google Scholar
- Stiglitz, J. E. (2012). The price of inequality: How today’s divided society endangers our future. New York: W. W. Norton and Company.Google Scholar
- Suchman, M. C. (1995). Managing legitimacy: Strategic and institutional approaches. Academy of Management Review, 20, 571–610.Google Scholar
- Sud, M., & VanSandt, C. V. (2011). Of fair markets and distributive justice. Journal of Business Ethics, 99(1, Supplement), 131–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Syed, J. (2008). Employment prospects for skilled migrants: A relational perspective. Human Resource Management Review, 18(1), 28–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Szmigin, I., & Rutherford, R. (2013). Shared value and the impartial spectator test. Journal of Business Ethics, 114(1), 171–182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Tadajewski, M., Maclaran, P., Parsons, E., & Parker, M. (2011). Key concepts in critical management studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Taibbi, M. (2014). The divide: American injustice in the age of the wealth gap. New York: Spiegel and Grau.Google Scholar
- Talley, I. (2014, March 14). IMF warns on the dangers of growing income inequality. Wall Street Journal (Eastern Edition), A9.Google Scholar
- The Stanford Center on Poverty and Inequality. (2014). State of the union: The poverty and inequality report. http://www.stanford.edu/group/scspi/center_events_sotu.html.
- Thornton, P. H., Ocasio, W., & Loundsbury, M. (2012). The institutional logics perspective: A new approach to culture, structure, and process. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Trevor, C. O., Reilly, G., & Gerhart, B. (2012). Reconsidering pay dispersion’s effect on the performance of interdependent work: Reconciling sorting and pay inequality. Academy of Management Journal, 55(3), 585–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Turner, S. P. (2006). The philosophy of the social sciences in organizational studies. In S. R. Clegg, C. Hardy, T. B. Lawrence, & W. R. Nord (Eds.), The Sage handbook of organization studies (2nd ed., pp. 409–424). London: Sage Publications Ltd.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Uchitelle, L. (2007). The disposable American: Layoffs and their consequences. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
- U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis. Table 2.1. Personal income and its disposition. Retrieved April 1, 2014, from http://www.bea.gov/iTable/index_nipa.cfm.
- Wade, J. B., O’Reilly, C. A., I. I. I., & Pollock, T. G. (2006). Overpaid CEOs and underpaid managers: Fairness and executive compensation. Organization Science, 17(5), 527–544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Walsh, J. P. (2008). CEO compensation and the responsibilities of the business scholar to society. Academy of Management Perspectives, 22(2), 26–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Walters, S. J. K. (1993). Enterprise, government, and the public. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
- Wilkinson, R., & Pickett, K. (2009a). The spirit level: Why greater equality makes societies stronger. New York: Bloomsbury Press.Google Scholar
- Wilkinson, R. G., & Pickett, K. E. (2009b). Income inequality and social dysfunction. Annual Review of Sociology, 35, 493–511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar