Skip to main content

Virtuous Leadership: Exploring the Effects of Leader Courage and Behavioral Integrity on Leader Performance and Image

Journal of Business Ethics volume 132, pages 297–310 (2015)Cite this article

Abstract

We examined the relationship between leader behavioral integrity and leader behavioral courage using data from two studies. Results from Study 1, an online experiment, indicated that behavioral manifestations of leader behavioral integrity and situational adversity both have direct main effects on behavioral manifestations of leader courage. Results from Study 2, a multisource field study with practicing executives, indicated that leader behavioral courage fully mediates the effects of leader behavioral integrity on leader performance and leader executive image. Implications of these findings and future directions are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1

References

  • Audi, R., & Murphy, P. E. (2006). The many faces of integrity. Business Ethics Quarterly, 1, 3–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Avolio, B. J., Mhatre, K., Norman, S. M., & Lester, P. (2009). The moderating effect of gender on leadership intervention impact: An exploratory review. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 15(4), 325–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bass, B., & Steidlmeier, P. (1999). Ethics, character, and authentic transformational leadership behavior. The Leadership Quarterly, 10(2), 181–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bliese, P. D. (2000). Within-group agreement, non-independence, and reliability: Implications for data aggregation and analyses. In K. J. Klein & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions, and new directions (pp. 349–381). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, M. E. (2007). Misconceptions of ethical leadership: How to avoid potential pitfalls. Organizational Dynamics, 36(2), 140–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, M., & Trevino, L. (2006). Ethical leadership: A review and future directions. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), 595–616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, M., Trevino, L., & Harrison, D. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97(2), 117–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cameron, K. S., Dutton, J. E., & Quinn, R. E. (2003). Positive organizational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline (pp. 3–13). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.

    Google Scholar 

  • CCL. (2009). Executive dimensions technical manual. Greensboro: Center for Creative Leadership.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Costa, A. (2010). Review of the Executive Dimensions®. In R. A. Spies, J. F. Carlson, & K. F. Geisinger (Eds.), The eighteenth mental measurements yearbook (pp. 218–221). Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.

    Google Scholar 

  • Den Hartog, D. N., House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Ruiz-Quintanilla, S. A., & Dorfman, P. W. (1999). Culture specific and cross-culturally generalizable implicit leadership theories: Are attributes of charismatic/transformational leadership universally endorsed? The Leadership Quarterly, 10(2), 219–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dineen, B. R., Lewicki, R. J., & Tomlinson, E. C. (2006). Supervisory guidance and behavioral integrity: Relationships with employee citizenships and deviant behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 622–635.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dvir, T., & Shamir, B. (2003). Follower developmental characteristics as predicting transformational leadership: A longitudinal field study. The Leadership Quarterly, 14, 327–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eden, D., & Leviatan, U. (1975). Implicit leadership theory as a determinant of the factor structure underlying supervisory behavior scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(6), 736.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelstein, S., Hambrick, D. C., & Cannella, A. A., Jr. (2009). Strategic leadership: Theory and research on executives, top management teams, and boards. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frost, D. E., Fiedler, F. E., & Anderson, J. W. (1983). The role of personal risk-taking in effective leadership. Human Relations, 36(2), 185–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fry, L. W. (2003). Toward a theory of spiritual leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(6), 693–727.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, W. L., Avolio, B. J., Luthans, F., May, D. R., & Walumbwa, F. (2005). "Can you see the real me?" A self-based model of authentic leader and follower development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 343–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, W. A., Cullen, K. L., Sosik, J. J., Chun, J. U., Leupold, C. R., & Tonidandel, S. (2013). Integrity’s place among the character strengths of middle-level managers and top-level executives. The Leadership Quarterly, 24, 395–404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greguras, G. J., & Robie, C. (1998). A new look at within-source interrater reliability of 360-degree feedback ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 960–968.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halton, A. (2003). The courage to act: 5 factors of courage to transform business. The Quality Management Journal, 10(3), 60–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harbour, M., & Kisfalvi, V. (2014). In the eye of the beholder: An exploration of managerial courage. Journal of Business Ethics, 119(4), 493–515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, H. (2001). Content analysis of secondary data: A study of courage in managerial decision making. Journal of Business Ethics, 34, 191–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs, 76, 408–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hernandez, M. (2008). Promoting stewardship behavior in organizations: A leadership model. Journal of Business Ethics, 80, 121–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James, L. R. (1988). Organizational climate: Another look at a potentially important construct. In S. G. Cole, R. G. Demaree (Eds.), Applications of interactionist psychology: Essays in honor of Saul B. Sells (pp. 253–282). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

  • James, L. R., Demaree, R. G., & Wolf, G. (1984). Estimating within-group interrater reliability with and without response bias. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 85–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerfoot, K. (1999). The culture of courage. Nursing Economics, 17(4), 238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kilmann, R., O’Hara, L., & Strauss, J. (2010). Developing and validating a quantitative measure of organizational change. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25, 15–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, P. H., Dirks, K. T., Cooper, C. D., & Ferrin, D. L. (2006). When more blame is better than less: The implications of internal vs. external attributions for the repair of trust after a competence-vs. integrity-based trust violation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 99(1), 49–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koerner, M. M. (2014). Courage as identity work: Accounts of workplace courage. Academy of Management Journal, 57, 63–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, B. S. (1988). New wrinkles in the theory of age: Demography, norms, and performance ratings. Academy of Management Journal, 31, 309–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LeBreton, J. M., & Senter, J. L. (2008). Answers to 20 questions about interrater reliability and interrater agreement. Organizational Research Methods, 11, 815–852.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leroy, H., Anseel, F., Gardner, W. L., & Sels, L. (2012a). Authentic leadership, authentic followership, basic need satisfaction, and work role performance: A cross-level study. Journal of Management. doi:10.1177/0149206312457822.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leroy, H., Palanski, M. E., & Simons, T. L. (2012b). Authentic leadership and behavioral integrity as drivers of follower commitment and performance. Journal of Business Ethics, 107, 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez, S. J., O’Byrne, K. K., & Petersen, S. (2003). Profiling courage. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Positive psychological assessment: A handbook of models and measures (pp. 185–187). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lyness, K. S., & Heilman, M. E. (2006). When fit is fundamental: Performance evaluations and promotions of upper-level female and male managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 777–785.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, D. P., Krull, J. L., & Lockwood, C. M. (2000). Equivalence of the meditation, confounding, and suppression effect. Prevention Science, 1, 173–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 99–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, G. S., Keating, M. A., Resick, C. J., Szabo, E., Kwan, H. K., & Peng, C. (2013). The meaning of leader integrity: A comparative study across Anglo, Asian, and Germanic cultures. The Leadership Quarterly, 24(3), 445–461.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • May, D. R., Chan, A. Y., Hodges, T. D., & Avolio, B. J. (2003). Developing the moral component of authentic leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 32, 247–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCall, M. W. (1994). Identifying leadership potential in future international executives: Developing a concept. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 46, 49–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McFall, L. (1987). Integrity. Ethics, 98(1), 5–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKay, P. F., & McDaniel, M. A. (2006). A reexamination of black–white mean differences in work performance: More data, more moderators. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 538–554.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2012). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles: Muthén and Muthén.

  • Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2010). Organizational tenure and job performance. Journal of Management, 36, 1220–1250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nilsen, D., & Hallam, G. (2000). Executive dimensions. Greensboro: Center for Creative Leadership.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osswald, S., Greitemeyer, T., Fischer, P., & Frey, D. (2010). Moral prototypes and moral behavior: Specific effects on emotional precursors of moral behavior and on moral behavior by the activation of moral prototypes. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 1078–1094.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palanski, M. E., Kahai, S. S., & Yammarino, F. J. (2011). Team virtues and performance: An examination of transparency, behavioral integrity, and trust. Journal of Business Ethics, 99(2), 201–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palanski, M. E., & Vogelgesang, G. (2011). Virtuous creativity: The effects of leader behavioural integrity on follower creative thinking and risk taking. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 28, 259–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palanski, M. E., & Yammarino, F. J. (2007). Integrity and leadership: Clearing the conceptual confusion. European Management Journal, 25, 171–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palanski, M. E., & Yammarino, F. J. (2009). Integrity and leadership: A multi-level conceptual framework. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(3), 405–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palanski, M., & Yammarino, F. J. (2011). Effects of behavioral integrity on follower job performance: A three-study examination. The Leadership Quarterly, 22, 765–786.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. New York: Oxford/American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posner, R. (2001). Antitrust law (2nd ed.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pury, C. L. S., Kowalski, R. M., & Spearman, J. (2007). Distinctions between general and personal courage. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2(2), 99–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarros, J., & Cooper, B. (2006). Building character: A leadership essential. Journal of Business and Psychology, 21(1), 1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shamir, B., House, R. J., & Arthur, M. B. (1993). The motivational effects of charismatic leadership: A self-concept based theory. Organization Science, 4(4), 577–594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shepela, S. T., Cook, J., Horlitz, E., Leal, R., Luciano, S., Lutfy, E., et al. (1999). Courageous resistance: A special case of altruism. Theory and Psychology, 9, 787–805.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422–445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simons, T. (2002). Behavioral integrity: The perceived alignment between managers’ words and deeds as a research focus. Organization Science, 13(1), 18–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simons, T., Friedman, R., Liu, L. A., & McLean Parks, J. (2007). Racial differences in sensitivity to behavioral integrity: Attitudinal consequences, in-group effects, and “trickle down” among black and non-black employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(3), 650–665.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic intervals for indirect effects in structural equations models. In S. Leinhart (Ed.), Sociological methodology (pp. 290–312). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sosik, J. J. (2006). Leading with character: Stories of valor and virtue and the principles they teach. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

  • Sosik, J., & Cameron, J. (2010). Character and authentic transformational leadership behavior: Expanding the ascetic self towards others. Consulting Psychology Journal, 62(4), 251–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sosik, J. J., Gentry, W. A., & Chun, J. U. (2012). The value of virtue in the upper echelons: A multisource examination of executive character strengths and performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(3), 367–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vassar, M. (2010). Review of the Executive Dimensions ®. In R. A. Spies, J. F. Carlson, & K. F. Geisinger (Eds.), The eighteenth mental measurements yearbook (pp. 221–223). Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Q. (2011). A conceptual and empirical investigation of leader virtues and virtuous leadership. Open Access Dissertations and Theses. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.mcmaster.ca/opendissertations/6116.

  • Watson, S. F. (2003). Courage and caring: Step up to your next level of nursing excellence. Patient Care Management, 19(4), 4–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whittington, A., & Mack, E. (2010). Inspiring courage in girls: An evaluation of practices and outcomes. Journal of Experiential Education, 33(2), 166–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodard, C. R., & Pury, C. L. S. (2007). The construct of courage: categorization and measurement. Consulting Psychology Journal, 59(2), 135–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Saunders College of Business, Rochester Institute of Technology, 108 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA

    Michael E. Palanski & Chelsea M. Nichols

  2. Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, NC, USA

    Kristin L. Cullen & William A. Gentry

Authors
  1. Michael E. Palanski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kristin L. Cullen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. William A. Gentry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Chelsea M. Nichols
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael E. Palanski.

Appendix: Manipulations for Adversity in Study 1

Appendix: Manipulations for Adversity in Study 1

Statement to Employees (High Adversity)

Monet Incorporated today announced revenue has declined 73 % compared with the previous year.

With further deterioration of global economic conditions, we are doing everything we can do to increase efficiency, lower cost, and become more sustainable. We are not only trying to bring us out of the weaken economy strong, but we will become one of the biggest services manufacturers in the world as a provider of business solutions for millions of software users.

Layoffs may be the solution to our problems, especially with our aging workforce. As of tomorrow, HR will be conducting thorough analysis of employee productivity to ensure that all positions are necessary to bring us to this next step. Please be prepared to see some changes in the organizational structure of the business within the next few months. We ask that you cooperate with the HR professionals as they observe your work, and prepare to justify why your position is important to the company. We will be establishing resume builder workshops, as well as job search tips to accommodate those who may be laid off. Thank you in advanced for your cooperation.”

Statement to Employees (Low Adversity)

Monet Incorporated today announced a revenue increase of 12.7 % compared to the previous year (see Charts 1, 2). The last 4 years have been tough as we transform the company. However, we have overcome a lot, and we are so happy with the results.

We believe that we are on a strong path that will lead to sustainability in the competitive marketplace. We hope to continue down this successful path by maintaining our core values. We are proud of our hard-working employees and we have high expectations for this upcoming year.

Chart 1
figure 2

Partial example of behavioral integrity manipulation (High BI)

Full size image
Chart 2
figure 3

Partial example of behavioral integrity manipulation (Low BI)

Full size image

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Palanski, M.E., Cullen, K.L., Gentry, W.A. et al. Virtuous Leadership: Exploring the Effects of Leader Courage and Behavioral Integrity on Leader Performance and Image. J Bus Ethics 132, 297–310 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2317-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2317-2

Keywords

  • Courage
  • Behavioral integrity
  • Leadership
  • Job performance
  • Executive image
  • Virtues