Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Turning Inward or Focusing Out? Navigating Theories of Interpersonal and Ethical Cognitions to Understand Ethical Decision-Making

  • Published:
Journal of Business Ethics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The literature on ethical decision-making is rooted in a cognitive perspective that emphasizes the role of moral judgment. Recent research in interpersonal dynamics, however, has suggested that ethics revolves around an individual’s perceptions and views of others. We draw from both literatures to propose and empirically examine a contingent model. We theorize that whether the individual relies on cognitions about the ethical issue or perceptions of others depends on the level of social consensus surrounding the issue. We test our hypotheses in three studies. Results suggest that not only does social consensus determine whether an individual relies on ethical cognitions about the issue or perceptions of others, but also that an individual’s view of self is an important moderator in these relationships. We conclude by considering implications of this research for theory and practice.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Albert, L. S., & Horowitz, L. M. (2009). Attachment styles and ethical behavior: Their relationship and significance in the market place. Journal of Business Ethics, 87, 299–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Albert, L. S., & Moskowitz, D. S. (2014). Quarrelsomeness in the workplace: An exploration of the interpersonal construct within the organizational context. Organizational Psychology Review, 4(1), 27–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin, M. W. (1992). Relational schemas and the processing of social information. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 461–484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin, M. W. (1995). Relational schemas and cognition in close relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 12, 547–552.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 226–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R., Smart, L., & Boden, J. (1996). Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of self-esteem. Psychological Review, 103, 5–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bedau, H. A. (2010). Punishment. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/punishment/.

  • Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. London: Pimlico.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss, Vol. 2: Separation. Anger and anxiety. London: Pimlico.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowler, W. M., & Brass, D. J. (2006). Relational correlates of interpersonal citizenship behavior. A social network perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(1), 70–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradshaw, C. P., & Hazan, C. (2006). Examining views of self in relation to views of others: Implications for research on aggression and self-esteem. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 1209–1218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brady, F. N. (1985). A Janus-headed model of ethical theory: Looking two ways at business/society issues. Academy of Management Review, 10(3), 568–576.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brady, F. N., & Wheeler, G. E. (1996). An empirical study of ethical predispositions. Journal of Business Ethics, 15, 927–940.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brass, D. J., Butterfield, K. D., & Skaggs, B. C. (1998). Relationships and unethical behavior: A social network perspective. Academy of Management Review, 23, 14–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burks, V. S., Laird, R. D., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (1999). Knowledge structures, social information processing, and children’s aggressive behavior. Social Development, 8(2), 220–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butterfield, K., Treviño, L. K., & Weaver, G. R. (2000). Moral awareness in business organizations: Influences of issue-related and social context factors. Human Relations, 53, 981–1018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, G., Gully, S. M., & Eden, D. (2001). Validation of a new general self-efficacy scale. Organizational Research Methods, 4(1), 62–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, T. R. (2010). Moral emotions and unethical bargaining: The differential effects of empathy and perspective taking in deterring deceitful negotiation. Journal of Business Ethics, 94(4), 569–579.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self- esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96(4), 608–630.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dizen, M., & Berenbaum, H. (2011). Perceptions of self and others. Emotion, 11(1), 115–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dodge, K. A., & Crick, N. R. (1990). Social information processing bases of aggressive behavior in children. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 53, 1146–1158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duckitt, J. (2001). A dual-process cognitive-motivational theory of ideology and prejudice. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 41–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrell, O. C., & Weaver, K. M. (1978). Ethical beliefs of marketing managers. Journal of Marketing, 42, 69–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frey, B. F. (2000). The impact of moral intensity on decision making in a business context. Journal of Business Ethics, 26, 181–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fritzsche, D. J., & Becker, H. (1984). Linking management behavior to ethical philosophy- An empirical investigation. Academy of Management Journal, 27(1), 166–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • George, E., Milman, C., & Deshpande, S. P. (1999). A comparison of ethical practices of Russian and American managers. International Journal of Value-Based Management, 12(2), 129–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goolsby, J. R., & Hunt, S. D. (1992). Cognitive moral development and marketing. Journal of Marketing, 56, 55–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graziano, W. G., Bruce, J., Sheese, B. E., & Tobin, R. M. (2007). Attraction, personality, and prejudice: Liking none of the people most of the time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 565–582.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graziano, W. G., & Tobin, R. M. (2002). Agreeableness: Dimension of personality or social desirability artifact? Journal of Personality, 70, 695–727.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, J. (2002). Who stole the money and when? Individual and situational determinants of employee theft. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 89(1), 985–1003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108, 814–834.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hannah, S. T., Avolio, B. J., & May, D. R. (2011). Moral Maturation and moral conation: A capacity approach to explaining moral thought and action. Academy of Management Review, 36, 663–685.

    Google Scholar 

  • Honderich, T. (1995). The Oxford companion to philosophy. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, L. M., Dryer, D. C., & Krasnoperova, E. N. (1997). The circumplex structure of interpersonal problems. In R. Plutchik & H. R. Conte (Eds.), Circumplex models of personality and emotions (pp. 347–384). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, S. D., & Vitell. S. J. (1993). The general theory of marketing ethics: A retrospective and revision. Ethics in marketing, edited by N. C. Smith and J. A. Quelch, 775-84.

  • Hunt, S. D., & Vitell, S. J. (1986). A general theory of marketing ethics. Journal of Macromarketing, 6, 5–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, T. M. (1991). Ethical Decision Making by Individuals in Organizations: An Issue-contingent Model. Academy of Management Review, 16(2), 366–395.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahn, W. A., & Kram, K. E. (1994). Authority at work: Internal models and their organizational consequences. Academy of Management Review, 19, 17–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kidwell, J. M., Stevens, R. E., & Bethke, A. L. (1987). Differences in ethical perceptions between male and female managers: Myth or reality? Journal of Business Ethics, 6, 489–493.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiesler, D. J. (1996). Contemporary Interpersonal Theory and Research. New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kobak, R. R., & Sceery, A. (1988). Attachment in late adolescence: Working models, affect regulation and representations of self and others. Child Development, 59, 135–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg, L. (1981). The philosophy of moral development. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., & Tangney, J. P. (2003). Handbook of self and identity. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Locke, K. D. (2009). Aggression, narcissism, self-esteem, and the attribution of desirable and humanizing traits to self versus others. Journal of Research in Personality, 43(1), 99–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Long, D. E. (1990). The anatomy of terrorism. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, R., Davis, J., & Schoorman, F. (1995). An integration model of organizational trust. Academy of Management Review, 20, 709–734.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, C., Ingram, R., & Dato-on, C. M. (2006). The business of ethics and gender. Journal of Business Ethics, 64, 101–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McFarlin, D. B., Baumeister, R. F., & Blascovich, J. (1984). On knowing when to quit: Task failure, self-esteem, advice, and non-productive persistence. Journal of Personality, 52, 138–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moskowitz, D. S. (2010). Quarrelsomeness in daily life. Journal of Personality, 78, 39–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muncy, J. A., & Vitell, S. J. (1992). Consumer ethics: an investigation of the ethical beliefs of the final consumer. Journal of Business Research, 24(4), 297–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Business Ethics Survey (2011). http://www.ethics.org/nbes/ April 30, 2014.

  • National Retail Security Survey (2013). http://blog.nrf.com/ September 6, 2013.

  • Newstrom, J. W. & Ruch, W. A. (1975). Marketing Ethics of Management and the Management of Ethics, MSU Business Topics, Winter, 31.

  • Oates, R. K., & Forrest, D. (1985). Self-esteem and early background of abusive mothers. Child Abuse and Neglect, 9, 89–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paulhus, D. L. (1984). Two-component models of socially desirable responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 598–609.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paulhus, D. L. (1998). Interpersonal and intrapsychic adaptiveness of trait self enhancement: A mixed blessing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1197–1208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, D. K. (2002). The relationship between unethical behavior and the dimensions of the ethical climate questionnaire. Journal of Business Ethics, 41, 313–326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pietromonaco, P. R., & Barrett, L. F. (2000). The internal working models concept: What do we really know about the self in relation to others? Review of General Psychology, 4, 155–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pulliam, S., Scannell, K., Lucchetti, A., & Ng, S. (2010, May 12). Wall Street probe widens. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved April 22, 2014 from http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052748704247904575240783937399958.

  • Raine, A. (2008). From genes to brain to antisocial behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 323–328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rest, J. R. (1986). Moral development: Advances in research and theory. New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, S. J. (2006a). Moral awareness and ethical predispositions: Investigating the role of individual differences in the recognition of moral issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 233–243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, S. J. (2006b). A neuro-cognitive model of the decision making process: Implications for study and practice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 737–748.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, S. J., & Ceranic, T. L. (2007). The effects of moral judgment and moral identity on moral behavior: An empirical examination of the moral individual. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(6), 1610–1624.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, R. W., Hendin, H. M., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2001). Measuring global self-esteem: Construct validation of a single item measure and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 151–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotter, J. B. (1967). A new scale for the measurement of interpersonal trust. Journal of Personality, 35(4), 651–665.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schminke, M., Ambrose, M. L., & Noel, T. W. (1997). The effect of ethical frameworks on perceptions of organizational justice. Academy of Management Journal, 40(5), 1190–1208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized self-efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston (Eds.), Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio (pp. 35–38). Windsor: NFER-Nelson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silk, J. B. (2006). Who are more helpful, humans or chimpanzees? Science-New York Then Washington, 5765, 1248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sims, R. R. (1992). The challenge of ethical behavior in organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 11(7), 114–505.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Son Hing, L. S., Bobocel, D. R., Zanna, M. P., & Mc Bride, M. V. (2007). Authoritarian Dynamics and unethical decision making: High social dominance orientation leaders and high right wing authoritarian followers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(1), 67–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A., & Waters, E. (1977). Attachment as an organizational construct. Child Development, 48, 1184–1199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweeney, B., Arnold, D., & Pierce, B. (2010). The impact of perceived ethical culture of the firm and demographic variables on auditors’ ethical evaluation and intention to act decisions. Journal of Business Ethics, 93(4), 531–551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thiel, C. E., Bagdasarov, Z., Harkrider, L., Johnson, J. F., & Mumford, M. D. (2012). Leader ethical decision-making in organizations: Strategies for sensemaking. Journal of Business Ethics, 107(1), 49–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treviño, L. K., Butterfield, K. D., & McCabe, D. L. (1998). The ethical context in organizations: Influences on employee attitudes and behaviors. Business Ethics Quarterly, 8(3), 447–476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treviño, L. K., Weaver, G. R., & Reynolds, S. J. (2006). Behavioral ethics in organizations: A review. Journal of Management, 32, 951–990.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Venkataramani, V., & Dalal, R. S. (2007). Who helps and harms whom? Relational antecedents of interpersonal helping and harming in organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 952–966.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vetlesen, A. J. (1994). Perception, empathy and judgment: An inquiry into the preconditions of moral performance. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitell, S. J. (2003). Consumer ethics research: Review, synthesis and suggestions for the future. Journal of Business Ethics, 43(1–2), 33–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitell, S. J., King, R. A., & Singh, J. J. (2013). A special emphasis and look at the emotional side of ethical decision-making. AMS Review, 1–12.

  • Vitell, S. J., Lumpkin, J. R., & Rawwas, M. Y. A. (1991). Consumer ethics: An investigation of the ethical beliefs of elderly consumers. Journal of Business Ethics, 10(5), 365–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitell, S. J., & Muncy, J. A. (2005). The Muncy-Vitell Consumer Ethics Scale: A Modification and Application. Journal of Business Ethics, 62, 267–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitell, S. J., Singhapakdi, A., & Thomas, J. (2001). Consumer ethics: an application and empirical testing of the Hunt-Vitell theory of ethics. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 18(2), 153–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, G. R., Reynolds, S. J., & Brown, M. E. (2014). Moral intuition connecting current knowledge to future organizational research and practice. Journal of Management, 40(1), 100–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, G. R., & Treviño, L. K. (1999). Compliance and values oriented ethics programs: Influences on employees’ attitudes and behavior. Business Ethics Quarterly, 9, 315–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weber, J. (1990). Managers’ moral reasoning: Assessing their response to three moral dilemmas. Human Relations, 43, 687–702.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiehe, V. R. (1991). Perilous rivalry: When siblings become abusive. Lexington, MA: Health: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, D., Harms, P., & Vazire, S. (2010). Perceiver effects as projective tests: What your regard for others say about you. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(1), 174–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank Leonard. M. Horowitz for his valuable help with the development of this research. We are also grateful to David Day, Dawn DeTienne, Ray Hogler, Debbie Moskowitz, Dan Ganster, Karl Aquino, Mark Baldwin, Kenneth Locke, Alyssa Gibbons, Carolyn Dang and Rosemond Desir for their constructive suggestions. Jenny Reed and Joshua Bennett provided assistance for this research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Business, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523-1275, USA

    Lumina S. Albert

  2. Foster School of Business, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA

    Scott J. Reynolds

  3. Department of Psychology, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA

    Bulent Turan

Authors
  1. Lumina S. Albert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Scott J. Reynolds
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Bulent Turan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lumina S. Albert.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Albert, L.S., Reynolds, S.J. & Turan, B. Turning Inward or Focusing Out? Navigating Theories of Interpersonal and Ethical Cognitions to Understand Ethical Decision-Making. J Bus Ethics 130, 467–484 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2236-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2236-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation