Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Do as I Say (and Do): Ethical Leadership Through the Eyes of Lower Ranks

  • Published:
Journal of Business Ethics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This research expands what is currently known in the organizational sciences about the causes, consequences and unique role of ethical leadership in the workplace. In two different studies and two independent samples of approximately 1,500 workers each in field settings, ethical leadership was positioned as an antecedent, mediator and outcome of variables of pragmatic importance to the workplace. Ethical leadership was the central concept modelled across both studies. Social cognitive theory, social identity theory and leadership categorization theory were used to support a model of how follower rank influences workplace outcomes through the mediating effect of ethical leadership. In addressing the ethical imperative of the employment relationship, these studies contribute to ethical leadership research in two ways. First, findings indicated that a follower’s rank was positively associated with perceptions of ethical leadership, and second, that ethical leadership functioned as a partial mediator between rank/status and desirable workplace outcomes such as organizational fairness climate, career satisfaction and follower affective commitment. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abelson, R. P. (1985). A variance explanation paradox: When a little is a lot. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 129–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. The Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 20–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York: General Learning Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartels, L. K., Harrick, E., Martell, K., & Strickland, D. (1998). The relationship between ethical climate and ethical problems within human resource management. Journal of Business Ethics, 17, 799–804.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J. W., & Kalin, R. (1995). Multicultural and ethnic attitudes in Canada: An overview of the 1991 national survey. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 27(3), 301–320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brady, F. N., & Wheeler, G. E. (1996). An empirical study of ethical predispositions. Journal of Business Ethics, 15(9), 927–940.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, M. B., & Brown, R. J. (1998). Intergroup relations. In S. T. Gilbert & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, M. E., & Treviño, L. K. (2006). Ethical leadership: A review and future directions. Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), 595–616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, M. E., & Treviño, L. K. (2009). Leader–follower values congruence: Are socialized charismatic leaders better able to achieve it? Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(2), 478–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97(2), 117–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Budd, J. W. (2004). Employment with a human face: Balancing efficiency, equity, and voice (pp. 66–81). New York: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colquitt, J. A. (2008). Two decades of organizational justice: Findings, controversies and future directions. In J. Barling & C. Coper (Eds.), The Sage handbook of organizational behavior (pp. 73–88). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, T. H., Jr. (1993). Cultural diversity in organizations: Theory, research & practice. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Den Hartog, D. N., & De Hoogh, A. H. B. (2009). Empowering behavior and leader fairness and integrity: Studying perceptions of ethical leader behavior from a levels-of-analysis perspective. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 18(2), 199–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deshpande, S. P. (1996). The impact of ethical climate types on facets of job satisfaction: An empirical investigation. Journal of Business Ethics, 15(6), 655–660.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dursun, S., Morrow, R., & Beauchamp, D. (2004). 2003 Defence ethics survey report. Sponsor Research Report 2004–18. Director Human Resources Research and Evaluation, National Defence Headquarters, Ottawa, ON, Canada.

  • Fields, D. L. (2002). Taking the measure of work: A guide to validated scales for organizational research and diagnosis. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, K. D. (2007). The 2007 defence ethics survey: Instrument revision, sampling, and electronic administration information (Technical Note DRDC CORA TN 2007-30). Ottawa, ON: National Defence Headquarters Director Military Personnel Operational Research and Analysis.

  • Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader–member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. Leadership Quarterly, 6(2), 210–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1976). Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, 250–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haslam, S. A. (2004). Psychology in organizations: The social identity approach. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellerman, B. (2012). The end of leadership. New York: HarperCollins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelloway, E. K., Barling, J., Harvey, S., & Adams-Roy, J. E. (1999). Ethical decision-making in DND: The development of a measurement instrument. Produced by the Director Human Resources Research and Evaluation. Canada: Sponsor Research Report 99-14.

  • Kenny, D. A. (1979). Correlation and causality. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khuntia, R., & Suar, D. (2004). A scale to assess ethical leadership of Indian private and public sector managers. Journal of Business Ethics, 49(1), 13–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg, L. (1984). The philosophy of moral development. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Konovsky, M. A., & Cropanzano, R. (1991). Perceived fairness of employee drug testing as a predictor of employee attitudes and job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 698–707.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, J., & Butler, J. (1952). Lecture vs. group decision in changing behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 36, 29–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lind, E. A., & Van den Bos, K. (2002). When fairness works: Toward a general theory of uncertainty management. In B. M. Straw & R. M. Kramer (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 24, pp. 181–223). Boston, MA: Elsevier.

  • Lord, R. G., Forti, R., & De Vader, C. L. (1984). A test of leadership categorization theory: Internal structure, information processing and leadership perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34, 343–378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, D. P. (2008). Introduction to statistical mediation analysis. New York: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • March, J. G., & Simon, H. A. (1958). Organizations. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, D. M., Kuenzi, M., Greenbaum, R., Bardes, M., & Salvador, R. (2009). How low does ethical leadership flow? Test of a trickle-down model. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 108(1), 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1997). Commitment in the workplace: Theory, research, and application. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, J. P., Jackson, T. A., & Maltin, E. R. (2008). Commitment in the workplace: Past, present, and future. In J. Barling & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), The Sage handbook of organizational behavior: Micro approaches (pp. 35–53). London: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, J. P., Paunonen, S. V., Gellatly, I. H., Goffin, R. D., & Jackson, D. N. (1989). Organizational commitment and job performance: It’s the nature of the commitment that counts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 152–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norton, S. (2005). The Department of National Defence and Canadian Forces Your-Say Survey: Methodology and preliminary findings. Directorate Human Resources Research and Evaluation Research Report.

  • O’Keefe, D. F. W. (2006). Ethical climate and leadership: Can leaders really make a difference? In Assessing the moderating effects of ethical climate on the relation between social dominance orientation/right-wing authoritarianism and self-reported unethical behaviour. Ph.D., University of Guelph, Canada.

  • Oshagbemi, T. (1997). The influence of rank on the job satisfaction of organizational members. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 12(8), 511–519.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ostroff, C., Kinicki, A., & Tamkins, M. M. (2003). Organizational culture and climate. In W. C. Borman, D. R. Ilgen, & R. Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of psychology, volume 12: Industrial organizational psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piccolo, R. F., Greenbaum, R., Hartog, D. N., & Folger, R. (2010). The relationship between ethical leadership and core job characteristics. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31(2–3), 259–278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Podsakoff, P. M., Mackenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12(4), 531–543.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rest, J. R. (1986). Moral development: Advances in research and theory. New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosnow, R. L., & Rosenthal, R. (1989). Statistical procedures and the justification of knowledge in psychological science. American Psychologist, 44, 1276–1284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schminke, M., Ambrose, M. L., & Neubaum, D. O. (2005). The effect of leader moral development on ethical climate and employee attitudes. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97(2), 135–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, B. (1975). Organizational climate: An essay. Personnel Psychology, 28, 447–479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, B., & Bowen, D. E. (1985). Employee and customer perceptions of service in banks: Replication and extension. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 423–433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, B., Brief, A. P., & Guzzo, R. A. (1996). Creating a climate and culture for sustainable organizational change. Organizational Dynamics, 24, 6–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, B., Gunnarson, S. K., & Niles-Jolly, K. (1994). Creating a climate and culture of success. Organizational Dynamics, 23, 17–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwab, D. S. (1999). Research methods in organizational studies (Chap. 14). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

  • Sharf, R. S. (2002). Applying career development theory to counseling (3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherif, M., White, B. J., & Harvey, O. J. (1955). Status in experimentally produced groups. American Journal of Sociology, 60, 370–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic intervals for indirect effects in structural equations models. In S. Leinhart (Ed.), Sociological methodology (pp. 290–312). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • SPSS. (2007). SPSS missing values analysis 16.0. Chicago, IL: SPSS Inc.

  • Super, D. E. (1953). A theory of vocational development. American Psychologist, 8, 185–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toor, S., & Ofori, G. (2009). Ethical leadership: Examining the relationships with full range leadership model, employee outcomes, and organizational culture. Journal of Business Ethics, 90, 533–547.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treviño, L. K., Weaver, G. R., & Brown, M. E. (2008). It’s lovely at the top: Hierarchical levels, identities, and perceptions of organizational ethics. Business Ethics Quarterly, 18(2), 233–252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, N., Barling, J., Epitropaki, O., Butcher, V., & Milner, C. (2002). Transformational leadership and moral reasoning. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(2), 304–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. C., & Tajfel, H. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. C. Austin (Eds.), The psychology of intergroup relations. Chicago: Nelson-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Victor, B., & Cullen, J. B. (1988). The organizational bases of ethical work climates. Administrative Science Quarterly, 33(1), 101–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walumbwa, F., Hartnell, C. A., & Oke, A. (2010). Servant leadership, procedural justice climate, employee attitudes, and organizational citizenship behavior: A cross-level investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(3), 517–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walumbwa, F., & Schaubroeck, J. (2009). Leader personality traits and employee voice behavior: Mediating roles of ethical leadership and work group psychological safety. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(5), 1275–1286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wanous, J. P., Reichers, A. E., & Hudy, M. J. (1997). Overall job satisfaction: How good are single-item measures? Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 247–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warr, P. B., Cook, J. D., & Wall, T. D. (1979). Scales for the measurement of work attitudes and psychological well-being. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 58, 229. In D. L. Fields (Ed.), Taking the measure of work: A guide to validated scales for organizational research and diagnosis (pp. 1–42). London: Sage.

  • Winefield, A. H., Winefield, H. R., Tiggermann, M., & Goldney, R. D. (1991). A longitudinal study of the psychological effects of unemployment and unsatisfactory employment on young adults. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(3), 424–431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yukl, G. (2010). Leadership in organizations (7th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zohar, D. (2000). A group-level model of safety climate: Testing the effect of group climate on microaccidents in manufacturing jobs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 587–596.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to John Pucic.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Pucic, J. Do as I Say (and Do): Ethical Leadership Through the Eyes of Lower Ranks. J Bus Ethics 129, 655–671 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2190-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2190-z

Keywords

Navigation