Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Temptation, Monetary Intelligence (Love of Money), and Environmental Context on Unethical Intentions and Cheating

  • Published:
Journal of Business Ethics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In Study 1, we test a theoretical model involving temptation, monetary intelligence (MI), a mediator, and unethical intentions and investigate the direct and indirect paths simultaneously based on multiple-wave panel data collected in open classrooms from 492 American and 256 Chinese students. For the whole sample, temptation is related to low unethical intentions indirectly. Multi-group analyses reveal that temptation predicts unethical intentions both indirectly and directly for male American students only; but not for female American students. For Chinese students, both paths are non-significant. Love of money contributes significantly to MI for all students. In Study 2, using money as a temptation and giving them opportunities to cheat on a matrix task, most Chinese students (78.4 %) do not cheat in open classrooms; supporting survey and structural equation modeling (SEM) results in Study 1. However, students in private cubicles cheat significantly more (53.4 %) than those in open classrooms (21.6 %). Finally, students’ love of money attitude predicts cheating. Factor rich predicts the cheating amount, whereas factor motivator predicts the cheating percentage. Our results shed new light on the impact of temptation and love of money as dispositional traits, money as a temptation, and environmental context (public vs. private) on unethical intentions and cheating behaviors.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Matthew 26:41.

  2. Now the serpent was the most cunning of all the animals that the Lord God had made. The serpent asked the woman, “Did God really tell you not to eat from any of the trees in the garden?” The woman answered the serpent: “We may eat of the fruit of the trees in the garden; it is only about the fruit of the tree in the middle of the garden that God said, ‘You shall not eat it or even touch it, lest you die.’” But the serpent said to the woman: “You certainly will not die!” (Genesis 3:1–4).

  3. To anyone who has, more will be given, and he will grow rich; from anyone who has not, even what he has will be taken away (Matthew 13:12).

  4. This university is ranked as the third best university in China in some rankings (equivalent to the MIT in the US).

  5. In the process of performing miracles, Jesus said, “Take away the stone” (John 11:39). To heal a deaf man, “He took him off by himself away from the crowd” (Mark 7:33).

  6. “The Lord is my light” (Psalm 27:1). See also John 8:12.

References

  • Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amabile, T. M. (1998). How to kill creativity. Harvard Business Review, 76(5), 76–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aquino, K., Freeman, D., Reed, A., Lim, V. K. G., & Felps, W. (2009). Testing a social-cognitive model of moral behavior: The interactive influence of situations and moral identity centrality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 123–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ariely, D. (2008). How honest people cheat. Harvard Business Review, 86(2), 24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arndt, J., Solomon, S., Kasser, T., & Sheldon, K. M. (2004). The urge to splurge: A terror management account of materialism and consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14(3), 198–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashforth, B. E., & Anand, V. (2003). The normalization of corruption in organizations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 25, 1–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashforth, B. E., Gioia, D. A., Robinson, S. L., & Treviño, L. K. (2008). Introduction to special topic forum: Re-viewing organizational corruption. Academy of Management Review, 33, 670–684.

    Google Scholar 

  • Association of Certified Fraud Examiners. (2012). Report to the nations: On occupational fraud and abuse. 2012 Global fraud study. http://www.acfe.com/rttn.aspx. Accessed on 1 June 2013.

  • Bagozzi, R. P., Tybout, A. M., Craig, C. S., & Sternthal, B. (1979). The contrast validity of the tripartite classification of attitudes. Journal of Marketing Research, 16, 88–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bateman, T. S., & Snell, S. A. (2013). Management: Leading & collaborating in the competitive world (10th ed.). Burr Ridge, IL: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

  • Baumeister, R. F. (2002). Yielding to temptation: Self-control failure, impulsive purchasing, and consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 28(4), 670–676.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252–1265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., Sparks, E. A., Stillman, T. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2008). Free will in consumer behavior: Self-control, ego depletion, and choice. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 18(1), 4–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bedford, O. A. (2004). The individual experience of guilt and shame in Chinese culture. Culture & Psychology, 10(1), 29–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belk, R. W. (1984). 3 scales to measure constructs related to materialism: Reliability, validity, and relationships to measures of happiness. Advances in Consumer Research, 11, 291–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, R. J., & Robinson, S. L. (2000). Development of a measure of workplace deviance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(3), 349–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y. J., & Tang, T. L. P. (2006). Attitude toward and propensity to engage in unethical behavior: Measurement invariance across major among university students. Journal of Business Ethics, 69(1), 77–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y. J., & Tang, T. L. P. (2013). The bright and dark sides of religiosity among university students: Do gender, college major, and income matter? Journal of Business Ethics. doi:10.1007/s10551-012-1407-2.

  • Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 233–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christian, M. S., & Ellis, A. P. J. (2011). Examining the effects of sleep deprivation on workplace deviance: A self-regulatory perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 54(5), 913–934.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christie, R., & Geis, F. L. (1970). Studies in Machiavellianism. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen-Charash, Y., & Spector, P. E. (2001). The role of justice in organizations: A meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 86(2), 278–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colquitt, J. A., LePine, J. A., & Wesson, M. J. 2013. Organizational behavior: Improving performance and commitment in the workplace (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

  • Colquitt, J. A., & Zapata-Phelan, C. P. (2007). Trends in theory building and theory testing: A five-decade study of the Academy of Management Journal. Academy of Management Journal, 50, 1281–1303.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Jonge, J., & Peeters, M. C. W. (2009). Convergence of self-reports and coworker reports of counterproductive work behavior: A cross-sectional multi-source survey among health care workers. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 46, 699–707.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Ridder, D. T. D., Lensvelt-Mulders, G., Finkenauer, C., Stok, F. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2012). Taking stock of self-control: A meta-analysis of how trait self-control relates to a wide range of behaviors. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16(1), 76–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dew, J., & Xiao, J. J. (2011). The financial management behavior scale: Development and validation. Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 22(1), 43–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dineen, B. R., Lewicki, R. J., & Tomlinson, E. C. (2006). Supervisory guidance and behavioral integrity: Relationships with employee citizenship and deviant behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 622–635.

    Google Scholar 

  • Du, L. Z., Tang, T. L. P., & Yang, D. T. (2007). Money profile and unethical behavior: A study of full-time employees and university students in China. In L. A. Parrish (Ed.), Business ethics in focus (pp. 135–148). Hauppauge, New York: Nova Publishers.

  • Edwards, J. R. (2011). The fallacy of formative measurement. Organizational Research Methods, 14(2), 370–388.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, J. R., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2000). On the nature and direction of relationships between constructs and measures. Psychological Methods, 5(2), 155–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feiner, M. (2004). The Feiner points of leadership. New York: Warner Business Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischhoff, B., & Beyth, R. (1975). “I knew it would happen.” Remembered probabilities of once—future things. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fishbach, A., Friedman, R. S., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2003). Leading us not unto temptation: Momentary allurements elicit overriding goal activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 296–309.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisman, R., & Miguel, E. (2007). Corruption, norms, and legal enforcement: Evidence from diplomatic parking tickets. Journal of Political Economy, 115(6), 1020–1048.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, S., Spector, P. E., Goh, A., & Bruursema, K. (2007). Does your coworker know what you’re doing? Convergence of self- and peer-reports of counterproductive work behavior. International Journal of Stress Management, 14, 41–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fung, H. (1999). Becoming a moral child: The socialization of shame among young Chinese children. Ethos, 27(2), 180–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., & Argyle, M. (1998). The psychology of money. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardarsdottir, R. B., & Dittmar, H. (2012). The relationship of materialism to debt and financial well-being: The case of Iceland’s perceived prosperity. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(3), 471–481.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gbadamosi, G., & Joubert, P. (2005). Money ethic, moral conduct and work related attitudes: Field study from the public sector in Swaziland. Journal of Management Development, 24, 754–763.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gehring, W. J., & Willoughby, A. R. (2002). The medial frontal cortex and the rapid processing of monetary gains and losses. Science, 295(5563), 2279–2282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gino, F., & Pierce, L. (2009). The abundance effect: Unethical behavior in the presence of wealth. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 109, 142–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gino, F., Schweitzer, M. E., Mead, N. L., & Ariely, D. (2011). Unable to resist temptation: How self-control depletion promotes unethical behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 115(2), 191–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, J. (1993). Stealing in the name of justice: Informational and interpersonal moderators of theft reactions to underpayment inequity. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 54, 81–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystorm, L. E., Darley, J. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment. Science, 293(5537), 2105–2108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heney, D. (2012, April 16). Pastor of St. Paschal Baylon Catholic Church. Thousand Oaks, CA. (Personal communication).

  • Ho, D. Y. F. (1976). On the concept of face. American Journal of Sociology, 81, 867–884.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, J. J. (1998). Are women really more ethical than men? Maybe it depends on the situation. Journal of Managerial Issues, 10(1), 60–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofmann, W., Friese, M., & Strack, F. (2009). Impulse and self-control from a dual-systems perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(2), 162–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holub, A., Hodgins, D. C., & Peden, N. E. (2005). Development of the temptations for gambling questionnaire: A measure of temptation in recently quit gamblers. Addiction Research & Theory, 13(2), 179–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hudmon, K. S., Prokhorov, A. V., Koehly, L. M., DiClemente, D. C., & Gritz, E. R. (1997). Psychometric properties of the decisional balance scale and the temptations to try smoking inventory in adolescents. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 6(3), 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hui, V. K. Y., & Bond, M. H. (2009). Target’s face loss, motivations, and forgiveness following relationship transgression: Comparing Chinese and US cultures. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 26(2–3), 123–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hwang, K. K. (2006). Moral face and social face: Contingent self-esteem in Confucian society. International Journal of Psychology, 41(4), 276–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jarvis, C. B., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, P. M. (2003). A critical review of construct indicators and measurement model misspecification in marketing and consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 30(2), 199–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jia, S. W., Zhang, W. X., Li, P., Feng, T. Y., & Li, H. (2013). Attitude toward money modulates outcome processing: An ERP study. Social Neuroscience, 8(1), 43–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (1993). A dark side of the American-dream: Correlates of financial success as a central life aspiration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(2), 410–422.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kish-Gephart, J. J., Harrison, D. A., & Treviño, L. K. (2010). Bad apples, bad cases, and bad barrels: Meta-analytic evidence about sources of unethical decisions at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 1–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kouchaki, M., Smith-Crowe, K., Brief, A. P., & Sousa, C. (2013). Seeing green: Mere exposure to money triggers a business decision frame and unethical outcomes. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 121(1), 53–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kroese, F. M., Evers, C., & De Ridder, D. T. D. (2011). Tricky treats: Paradoxical effects of temptation strength on self-regulation processes. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41(3), 281–2898.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lea, S. E. G., & Webley, P. (2006). Money as tool, money as drug: The biological psychology of a strong incentive. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 29(2), 161–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lim, V. K. G., & Teo, T. S. H. (1997). Sex, money and financial hardship: An empirical study of attitudes towards money among undergraduates in Singapore. Journal of Economic Psychology, 18, 369–386.

    Google Scholar 

  • Locke, E. A. (1969). What is job satisfaction? Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4, 309–336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. Psychological Bulletin, 127(2), 267–286.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M., & Jarvis, C. B. (2005). The problem of measurement model misspecification in behavioral and organizational research and some recommended solutions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(4), 710–730.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2011). Construct measurement and validation procedures in MIS and behavioral research: Integrating new and existing techniques. MIS Quarterly, 35(2), 293–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazar, N., Amir, O., & Ariely, D. (2008). The dishonesty of honest people: A theory of self-concept maintenance. Journal of Marketing Research, 45(6), 633–644.

    Google Scholar 

  • McShane, S. L., & Von Glinow, M. A. (2013). Organizational behavior (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mead, N. L., Baumeister, R. F., Gino, F., Schweitzer, M. E., & Ariely, D. (2009). Too tired to tell the truth: Self-control resource depletion and dishonesty. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(3), 594–597.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merton, R. K. (1968). The Matthew effect in science: The reward and communication systems of science are considered. Science, 159, 56–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mickel, A. E., & Barron, L. A. (2008). Getting “More Bang for the Buck”: Symbolic value of monetary rewards in organizations. Journal of Management Inquiry, 17, 329–338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mickel, A. E., Mitchell, T. R., Dakin, S., & Gray, S. (2003). The importance of money as an individual difference attribute. In S. W. Gilliland, D. D. Steiner, & D. P. Skarlicki (Eds.), Emerging perspectives on values in organizations (pp. 123–150). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milkovich, G. T., Newman, J. M., & Gerhart, B. (2014). Compensation (11th ed.). Boston: Irwin/McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, T. R., & Mickel, A. E. (1999). The meaning of money: An individual difference perspective. Academy of Management Review, 24(3), 568–578.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muraven, M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2000). Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle? Psychological Bulletin, 126(2), 247–259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muraven, M., Pogarsky, G., & Shmueli, D. (2006). Self-control depletion and the general theory of crime. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 22, 263–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nkundabanyanga, S. K., Omagor, C., Mpamizo, B., & Ntayi, J. M. (2011). The love of money, pressure to perform and unethical marketing behavior in the cosmetic industry in Uganda. International Journal of Marketing Studies, 3(4), 40–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nordgren, L. F., & Chou, E. Y. (2011). The push and pull of temptation: The bidirectional influence of temptation on self-control. Psychological Science, 22(1), 1386–1390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norvilitis, J. M., Merwin, M. M., Osberg, T. M., Roehling, P. V., Young, P., & Kamas, M. M. (2006). Personality factors, money attitudes, financial knowledge, and credit-card debt in college students. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36(6), 1395–1413.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piffa, P. K., Stancatoa, D. M., Côtéb, S., Mendoza-Dentona, R., & Keltnera, D. (2012). Higher social class predicts increased unethical behavior. Proceedings of National Academy of Science of the United States of America (PNAS), 109(11), 4086–4091.

    Google Scholar 

  • Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903.

    Google Scholar 

  • Restubog, S. L. D., Garcia, P. R. J. M., Toledano, L. S., Amarnani, R. K., Tolentino, L. R., & Tang, R. L. (2011). Yielding to (cyber)-temptation: Exploring the buffering role of self-control in the relationship between organizational justice and cyberloafing behavior in the workplace. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(2), 247–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richman, W. L., Kiesler, S., Weisband, S., & Drasgow, F. (1999). A meta-analytic study of social desirability distortion in computer-administered questionnaires, traditional questionnaires, and interviews. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 754–775.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ritter, B. A. (2006). Can business ethics be trained? A study of the ethical decision-making process in business students. Journal of Business Ethics, 68(2), 153–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, S. L., & Bennett, R. J. (1995). A typology of deviant workplace behaviors: A multidimensional scaling study. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 555–572.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum, M. (1993). The 3 functions of self-control behavior: Redressive, reformative and experiential. Work and Stress, 7(1), 33–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruedy, N. E., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2011). In the moment: The effect of mindfulness of ethical decision making. Journal of Business Ethics, 95(1), 73–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rynes, S. L., & Gerhart, B. (Eds.). (2000). Compensation in organizations: Current research and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sappenfield, M. (2012, June 17). Pastor of St. Rose of Lima Catholic Church. Murfreesboro, TN.

  • Sardzoska, E., & Tang, T. L. P. (2012). Work-related behavioral intentions in Macedonia: Coping strategies, work environment, love of money, job satisfaction, and demographic variables. Journal of Business Ethics, 108(3), 373–391.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schoorman, F. D., & Mayer, R. C. (2008). The value of common perspectives in self-reported appraisals: You get what you ask for. Organizational Research Methods, 11, 148–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7(4), 422–445.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shu, L. L., Mazar, N., Gino, F., Ariely, D., & Mazerman, M. H. (2012). Signing at the beginning makes ethics salient and decreases dishonest self-reports in comparison to signing at the end. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(38), 15197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simons, T., Friedman, R., Liu, L. A., & Parks, J. M. (2007). Racial differences in sensitivity to behavioral integrity: Attitudinal consequences, in-group effects, and “trickle down” among black and non-black employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 650–665.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skarlicki, D. P., & Folger, R. (1997). Retaliation in the workplace: The roles of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 434–443.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spector, P. E. (2006). Method variance in organizational research: Truth or urban legend? Organizational Research Methods, 9, 221–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spector, P. E., & Fox, S. (2010). Counterproductive work behavior and organizational citizenship behavior: Are they opposite forms of active behavior? Applied Psychology: An International Review, 59(1), 21–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Srivastava, A., Locke, E. A., & Bartol, K. M. (2001). Money and subjective well-being: It’s not the money, it’s the motives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 959–971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stolarski, M., Bitner, J., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2011). Time perspective, emotional intelligence and discounting of delayed awards. Time & Society, 20(3), 346–363.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P. (1987). Effects of type A personality and experimenter interest on behavior. Journal of Social Psychology, 127, 619–627.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P. (1992). The meaning of money revisited. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 197–202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P. (1993). The meaning of money: Extension and exploration of the money ethic scale in a sample of university students in Taiwan. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 14, 93–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P. (1996). Pay differentials as a function of rater’s sex, money ethic, and job incumbent’s sex: A test of the Matthew effect. Journal of Economic Psychology, 17, 127–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P. (2007). Income and quality of life: Does the love of money make a difference? Journal of Business Ethics, 72(4), 375–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P. (2010). From increasing gas efficiency to enhancing creativity: It pays to go green. Journal of Business Ethics, 94(2), 149–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P. (2012). Detecting honest people’s lies in handwriting: The power of the Ten Commandants and internalized ethical values. Journal of Business Ethics, 106, 389–400.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P., & Baumeister, R. F. (1984). Effects of personal values, perceived surveillance, and task labels on task preference: The ideology of turning play into work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 99–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P., & Chen, Y. J. (2008). Intelligence vs. wisdom: The love of money, Machiavellianism, and unethical behavior across college major and gender. Journal of Business Ethics, 82, 1–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P., & Chiu, R. K. (2003). Income, money ethic, pay satisfaction, commitment, and unethical behavior: Is the love of money the root of evil for Hong Kong managers? Journal of Business Ethics, 46, 13–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P., & Liu, H. (2012). Love of money and unethical behavior intention: Does an authentic supervisor’s personal integrity and character (ASPIRE) make a difference? Journal of Business Ethics, 107(3), 295–312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P., & Sutarso, T. (2013). Falling or not falling into temptation? Multiple faces of temptation, monetary intelligence, and unethical intentions across gender. Journal of Business Ethics. doi:10.1007/s10551-012-1475-3.

  • Tang, T. L. P., & Tang, T. L. N. (2010). Finding the lost sheep: A panel study of business students’ intrinsic religiosity, Machiavellianism, and unethical behavior intention in a public institution. Ethics and Behavior, 20(5), 352–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P., Kim, J. K., & Tang, D. S. H. (2000). Does attitude toward money moderate the relationship between intrinsic job satisfaction and voluntary turnover? Human Relations, 53(2), 213–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P., Sutarso, T., Akande, A., Allen, M. W., Alzubaidi, A. S., Ansari, M. A., et al. (2006). The love of money and pay level satisfaction: Measurement and functional equivalence in 29 geographical entities around the world. Management and Organization Review, 2, 423–452.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P., Chen, Y. J., & Sutarso, T. (2008a). Bad apples in bad (business) barrels: The love of money, Machiavellianism, risk tolerance, and unethical behavior. Management Decision, 46(2), 243–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P., Sutarso, T., Davis, G. M. T., Dolinski, D., Ibrahim, A. H. S., & Wagner, S. L. (2008b). To help or not to help? The good Samaritan effect and the love of money on helping behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 82(4), 865–887.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L. P., Sutarso, T., Ansari, M. A., Lim, V. K. G., Teo, T. S. H., Arias-Galicai, F., et al. (2011). The love of money is the root of all evil: Pay satisfaction and CPI as moderators. In L. A. Toombs (Ed.), Best paper proceedings of the Academy of Management. Boston.

  • Tang, T. L. P., Luna-Arocas, R., Quintanilla Pardo, I., & Tang, T. L. N. (2013a). Materialism and the bright and dark sides of the financial dream in Spain: The positive role of money attitudes—the Matthew effect. Applied Psychology: An International Review. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2012.00533.x.

  • Tang, T. L. P., Sutarso, T., Ansari, M. A., Lim, V. K. G., Teo, T. S. H., Arias-Galicai, F., et al. (2013b). A theory of temptation and the paradox of pay satisfaction: The love of money to corruption relationship in clean and corrupt cultures.

  • Tang, T. L. P., Sutarso, T., Ansari, M. A., Lim, V. K. G., Teo, T. S. H., Arias-Galicai, F., et al. (2013c). Are money smart people satisfied with pay and life? A theory of monetary intelligence. Paper presented at Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Lake Buena Vista (Orlando), FL.

  • Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72, 271–735.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Daily Record. (2003, April 5). Commentary: Education, ethics, and sentences for enronizing financial reports. Baltimore, MD, p. 1.

  • Tice, D. M., Bratslavsky, E., & Baumeister, R. F. (2001). Emotional distress regulation takes precedence over impulse control: If you feel bad, do it! Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(1), 53–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsukayama, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Kim, B. (2012). Resisting everything except temptation: Evidence and an explanation for domain-specific impulsivity. European Journal of Personality, 26(2), 318–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3, 4–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitell, S. J., Paolillo, J. G. P., & Singh, J. J. (2006). The role of money and religiosity in determining consumers’ ethical beliefs. Journal of Business Ethics, 64, 117–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vohs, K. D., Mead, N. L., & Goode, M. (2006). The psychological consequences of money. Science, 314, 1154–1156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Voreacos, D., & Glovin, D. (2008, December 12). Madoff confessed $50 billion fraud before FBI arrest (update3). http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=atUk.QnXAvZY. Accessed on 1 June 2013.

  • Wong, H. M. (2008). Religiousness, love of money, and ethical attitudes of Malaysian evangelical Christians in business. Journal of Business Ethics, 81(1), 169–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yamauchi, K. T., & Templer, D. I. (1982). The development of a money attitude scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 46, 522–528.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, Q., Wu, X. C., Zhou, X. Y., Mead, N. L., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2013). Diverging effects of clean versus dirty money on attitudes, values, and interpersonal behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(3), 473–489.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, L. Q. (2009). An exchange theory of money and self-esteem in decision making. Review of General Psychology, 13(1), 66–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhong, C. B., Bohns, V. K., & Gino, F. (2010). A good lamp is the best police: Darkness increases self-interested behavior and dishonesty. Psychological Science, 21(3), 311–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-difference metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1271–1288.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the National Natural Science Foundation of China for Grants awarded to the first author (Grant 70901051) and to the third author (Grant 71132003). The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the National Natural Science Foundation of China. We also like to thank Maurice E. Schweitzer, Nicole E. Ruedy, and Toto Sutarso for their suggestions and Minyan Huang and Zichang Cao for their assistance in data collection.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Management and Organization, Antai College of Economics & Management, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

    Jingqiu Chen & Ningyu Tang

  2. Department of Management and Marketing, Jennings A. Jones College of Business, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, TN, 37132, USA

    Thomas Li-Ping Tang

Authors
  1. Jingqiu Chen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Thomas Li-Ping Tang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ningyu Tang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Thomas Li-Ping Tang.

Appendix

Appendix

Temptation

Factor 1: Impulsive/Spontaneous Behavior

  1. 1.

    Temptations provoke us to think and act irrationally.

  2. 2.

    Temptations motivate us to behave spontaneously and impulsively.

  3. 3.

    Temptations persuade us to follow our feelings and hearts at the moment and take action right away.

Factor 2: Cognitive Impairment

  1. 4.

    Temptations corrupt us and cause us to make inappropriate decisions.

  2. 5.

    Temptations control our thoughts and behaviors and prevent us from concentrating on anything else.

  3. 6.

    Temptations make us feel weak physically, psychologically, and spiritually.

Factor 3: Lack of Self-Control

  1. 7.

    Temptations prevent us from thinking clearly about goals, ideals, and plans.

  2. 8.

    Temptations weaken the control of our emotions, desires, urges, or itch.

  3. 9.

    Temptations cause us to lose track of our own behaviors.

Factor 4: Social Moral Values

  1. 10.

    Temptations persuade our role models (stars/CEOs) with status and power to “cave in” to them.

  2. 11.

    Temptations are easier to accept when our friends and peers are doing them.

  3. 12.

    Temptations presented positively (the Ten Commandments, honor code) reduce cheating and lying.

Factor 5: Getting Rich

  1. 13.

    Temptations are more prominent to those who want to get rich.

  2. 14.

    Temptations are more salient (important) to those who have a high love-of-money orientation.

  3. 15.

    Temptations are more powerful to those who want to take risks.

Consequences of Temptation—A (Reflective vs. Formative)

  1. 16.

    Temptations provoke us to become selfish and ignore others’ needs, rights, and concerns.

  2. 17.

    Temptations stimulate us to get carried away and overlook (ignore) all other important matters.

Consequences of Temptation—B (SEM Model)

  1. 18.

    Temptations lead us to foolish and harmful desires that plunge men into ruin and destruction.

  2. 19.

    Temptations corrupt our moral beliefs or ethical standards.

Monetary Intelligence (MI)

Affective Motive of Money

Rich

  1. 1.

    I want to be rich.

  2. 2.

    It would be nice to be rich.

  3. 3.

    Having a lot of money (being rich) is good.

Motivator

  1. 4.

    Money reinforces me to work harder.

  2. 5.

    I am motivated to work hard for money.

  3. 6.

    I am highly motivated by money.

Importance

  1. 7.

    Money is valuable.

  2. 8.

    Money is important.

  3. 9.

    Money is good.

The Behavioral Stewardship of Money

Make Money

  1. 10.

    I find smarter and better ways of making money.

  2. 11.

    I look for new and legal ways to make money.

  3. 12.

    I am proud of my ability to make money.

Budget Money

  1. 13.

    I budget my money very well.

  2. 14.

    I use my money very carefully.

  3. 15.

    I am proud of my ability to save money.

Donate Money to Charity

  1. 16.

    I give generously to charitable organizations.

  2. 17.

    I believe in charitable giving.

  3. 18.

    I give money to the Church (religious organization(s)).

Contribute-The Matthew Effect

  1. 19.

    More money should be paid to people with higher quality of performance.

  2. 20.

    More money should be paid to people with more talent.

  3. 21.

    More money should be paid to people with higher merit (performance).

Cognitive Meaning of Money

Respect

  1. 22.

    Money makes people respect me in the community.

  2. 23.

    Money helps me gain respect.

  3. 24.

    Money allows me to express myself.

Achievement

  1. 25.

    Money represents my achievement.

  2. 26.

    Money is a symbol of my success.

  3. 27.

    Money reflects my accomplishments.

Power

  1. 28.

    Money is power.

  2. 29.

    Money gives one considerable power.

  3. 30.

    Money controls and manipulates your behavior, when you are paid.

Consequences of Monetary Intelligence—(SEM Model)

  1. 31.

    Money motivates people to perform unethically.

  2. 32.

    Money is a major cause of people’s unethical and evil acts.

Unethical Behavior Intentions (PUB)

Theft

  1. 1.

    Borrow $20 from a cash register overnight without asking.

  2. 2.

    Take merchandise and/or cash home.

  3. 3.

    Give merchandise away to personal friends (no charge to the customers).

Corrupt Intent

  1. 4.

    Abuse the company expense accounts and falsify accounting records.

  2. 5.

    Receive gifts, money, and loans (bribery) from others due to one’s position and power.

  3. 6.

    Lay off employees to save the company money and increase one’s personal bonus.

Deception

  1. 7.

    Overcharge customers to increase sales and to earn higher bonus.

  2. 8.

    Give customers “discounts” first and then secretively charge them more money later (bait and switch).

  3. 9.

    Make more money by deliberately not letting clients know about their benefits.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Chen, J., Tang, T.LP. & Tang, N. Temptation, Monetary Intelligence (Love of Money), and Environmental Context on Unethical Intentions and Cheating. J Bus Ethics 123, 197–219 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1783-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1783-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation