Abstract
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and pressure groups have taken up the mission of counterbalancing the huge power of the multinational corporations. Curiously, while most NGOs have a sincere ethical background and a genuine ethical motivation, the way some activist groups and NGOs themselves act does not always live up to the principles they advocate. Research using a multiple case study methodology is used to provide an illustration of various questionable practices followed by pressure groups revealing a range of tactics. The concerns, the objectives and the legitimacy of NGOs and activist groups will be discussed, along with their strategies and tactics. A framework will be developed as a basis for analysing the ethical aspects of the various NGO actions. The analysis of the cases will reveal some worrisome inconsistencies between the demands and the practices of NGOs and activist groups. Should not the means employed by activists and NGOs be consistent with their own espoused or implied values? As power gives responsibility, NGOs should be seen as having corporate stakeholder responsibility.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adair, A.: 1998. Sauce for the Goose. Review - Institute of Public Affairs, 50 (3), 10-11.
Adair, A.: 1999. Codes for Conduct Are Good for NGOs Too. Review - Institute of Public Affairs, 51 (1), 26-27.
Aguilera, R., Rupp, D., Williams, C., & Ganapathi, J. (2007). Putting the S Back in Corporate Social Responsibility: A Multi-Level Theory of Social Change in Organizations. Academy of Management Review, 32(3), 836–863.
Andriof, J., S. Waddock, B. Husted, and S. Sutherland Rahman: 2002, Unfolding Stakeholder Thinking (Greenleaf Publishing, Sheffield)
Attarça, M. and T. Jacquot: 2005, La représentation de la Responsabilité Sociale des Entreprises: une confrontation entre les approches théoriques et les visions managériales. XIViéme Conférence internationale de Management Stratégique, Angers
Baker, L. (1996). The Ethics of Protest. Vital Speeches of the Day, 62(8), 252–255.
Baron, D. (2005). Competing for the Public Through the News Media. Journal of Economics and Management Strategy. Cambridge, 14(2), 339–353. doi:10.1111/j.1530-9134.2005.00044.x.
Bella, D. (1997). Organized Complexity in Human Affairs: The Tobacco Industry. Journal of Business Ethics, 16(10), 977–989. doi:10.1023/A:1005725617855.
Bonardi, J., & Keim, G. (2005). Corporate Political Strategies for Widely Salient Issues. Academy of Management Review, 30(3), 555–567.
Clarkson, M. (1995). A stakeholder framework for analyzing and evaluating corporate social performance. Academy of Management Review, 20(1), 92–117. doi:10.2307/258888.
Clerix, K.: 2006. Buitenlandse diensten in België (Manteau).
Crane, A. and D. Matten: 2004. Business Ethics: A European Perspective (Oxford University Press, Oxford)
Dahan, N. (2005). A contribution to the conceptualization of political resources utilized in corporate political action. Journal of Public Affairs, 5(1), 43–54. doi:10.1002/pa.4.
de Bakker, F., & den Hond, F. (2008). Introducing the politics of stakeholder influence: A review essay. Business & Society, 47, 8–20. doi:10.1177/0007650307306637.
De Woot, P.: 2004. Responsabilité sociale de l’Entreprise - Faut-il enchaîner Prométhée? (Economica, Paris)
den Hond, F., & de Bakker, F. (2007). Ideologically motivated activism: How activist groups influence corporate social change. Academy of Management Review, 32(3), 901–924.
Doh, J., & Guay, T. (2006). Corporate social responsibility, public policy, and NGO activism in Europe and the United States: An institutional-stakeholder perspective. Journal of Management Studies, 43(1), 47–73. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.2006.00582.x.
Doh, J., & Teegen, H. (2002). Nongovernmental organizations as institutional actors in international business: theory and implications. International Business Review, 11, 665–684. doi:10.1016/S0969-5931(02)00044-6.
Edwards, M.: 2000. NGO rights and Responsibilities: A New Deal for Global Governance. The Foreign Policy Centre in Association with The National Council for Voluntary Organisations UK. Book Review in. Review - Institute of Public Affairs, 52 (3), 30-31.
Elsbach, K., & Sutton, R. (1992). Acquiring Organizational Legitimacy through Illegitimate Actions: A Marriage of Institutional and Impression Management Theories. Academy of Management Journal, 35(4), 699–736. doi:10.2307/256313.
Etzioni, A. 1964. Modern Organizations, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall.
Fassin, Y. (2005). The Reasons behind Non-ethical Behaviour in Business and Entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Ethics, 60, 265–279. doi:10.1007/s10551-005-0134-3.
Fassin, Y. (2008). Shortcomings and imperfections of the stakeholder model’s graphical representation. Journal of Business Ethics, 80(4), 879–888. doi:10.1007/s10551-007-9474-5.
Foster, D., & Jonker, J. (2005). Stakeholder relationships: the dialogue of engagement. Corporate Governance, 5(5), 51–57.
Freeman, E. 1984. Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston: Pitman.
Freeman E Harrison J & Wicks A (2007) Managing for Stakeholders. Yale University Press, New Haven London.
Friedman, M. 1999. Consumer boycotts: Effecting Change through the Market Place and the Media. London, Routledge.
Frooman, J. (1999). Stakeholder influence strategies. Academy of Management Review, 24(102), 191–205. doi:10.2307/259074.
Gereffi, G., Garcia-Johnson, R., & Sasser, E. (2001). The NGO-industrial Complex. Foreign Policy, 125, 56–65. doi:10.2307/3183327.
Gibelman, M., & Gelman, S. (2004). Loss of Credibility: Patterns of Wrongdoing Among Nongovernmental Organizations. Voluntas. International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 15(4), 355–381. doi:10.1007/s11266-004-1237-7.
Goodstein, J., & Wicks, A. (2007). Corporate and stakeholder responsibility. Making Business Ethics a two-way conversation. Business Ethics Quarterly, 17, 375–398.
Guay, T., Doh, J., & Sinclair, G. (2004). Non-governmental Organizations, Shareholder Activism, and Socially Responsible Investments: Ethical, Strategic, and Governance Implications. Journal of Business Ethics, 52, 125–139. doi:10.1023/B:BUSI.0000033112.11461.69.
Hayes, G. (2007). Collective Action and Civil Disobedience: The Anti-GMO Campaign of the Faucheurs Volontaires. French Politics, 5, 293–314. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200122.
Henderson, D.: 2001. Misguided Virtue – False Notions of Corporate Social Responsibility. Institute of Economic Affairs, 176 p
Hendry, J. (2005). Stakeholder Influence Strategies: An Empirical Exploration. Journal of Business Ethics, 61, 79–99. doi:10.1007/s10551-005-8502-6.
Hess, D. (2008). The Three Pillars of Corporate Social Reporting as New Governance Regulation: Disclosure, Dialogue, and Development. Business Ethics Quarterly, 18(4), 447–482.
Holzer, B.: 2008, ‹Turning Stakeseekers into Stakeholders. A Political Coalition Perspective on the Politics of Stakeholder Influence’, Business & Society 47(1), 50–67. doi:10.1177/0007650307306341
Hund, G., J. Engel-Cox, K. Fowler and H. Klee: 2002, ‹Two-Way Responsibility. The Role of Industry and Its Stakeholders in Working Towards Sustainable Development’, in J. Andriof, S. Waddock, B. Husted and S. Sutherland Rahman (eds.), Unfolding Stakeholder Thinking (Greenleaf Publishing, Sheffield), pp. 217–232
Ionescu-Somers, A.: 2006, ‹Views of Managers About Their Stakeholder Environment: An Update’, in U. Steger (ed.), Inside the Mind of the Stakeholder. The Hype behind Stakeholder Pressure (Palgrave-McMillan), pp. 29–42
Jamison, L., & Murdoch, H. (2005). Auditing (and communicating) your way to an ethical supply chain. Corporate Responsibility Management, 1(3), 16–21.
Jonker, J., & Nijhof, A. (2006). Looking through the Eyes of the Others: assessing mutual expectations and experiences in order to shape dialogue and collaboration between business and NGOs with respect to CSR. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 14(5), 456–466. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8683.2006.00518.x.
Kapstein, E. (2001). The Corporate Ethics Crusade. Foreign Affairs (Council on Foreign Relations), 80(5), 105–119.
Kaptein, M., & Van Tulder, R. (2003). Toward effective stakeholder dialogue. Business and Society Review, 108(2), 203–224. doi:10.1111/1467-8594.00161.
Keck, M., & Sikkink, K.1998. Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. NY, Cornell University Press.
King, B. (2008). A Social Movement Perspective of Stakeholder Collective Action and Influence. Business & Society, 47(1), 21–49. doi:10.1177/0007650307306636.
Klein N (2000) No Lodo: Taking Aim at the Brand Bullies. Flamingo, London
Kostova, T., & Roth, K. (2002). Adoption of an Organizational Practice by Subsidiaries of Multinational Corporations: Institutional and Relational Effects. Academy of Management Review, 45(1), 215–233. doi:10.2307/3069293.
Lawrence, A.: 2002, ‹The Drivers of Stakeholder Engagement’, in J. Andriof, S. Waddock, B. Husted and S. Sutherland Rahman (eds.), Unfolding Stakeholder Thinking (Greenleaf Publishing, Sheffield), pp. 185–200
Lehman, G. (2007). The accountability of NGOs in civil society and in public spheres. Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 18(6), 645–669. doi:10.1016/j.cpa.2006.04.002.
McCauley, D. (2007). Environmental Mobilization and Resource-Opportunity Usage: The Examples of WWF-France, FNE and LPO in Policy Process. French Politics, 5, 333–353. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200133.
McGann J, Johnstone M (2006) The Power Shift and the NGO Credibility Crisis. The International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law 8:2
Mitchell, R., Agle, B., & Wood, D. (1997). Toward a theory of stakeholder identification and salience: Defining the principle of who and what really counts. Academy of Management Review, 22(4), 853–886. doi:10.2307/259247.
O’Riordan, L., & Fairbrass, J. (2008). Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): Models and Theories in Stakeholder Dialogue. Journal of Business Ethics, 83, 745–758. doi:10.1007/s10551-008-9662-y.
Oliver, C. (1990). Determinants of Interorganizational Relationships: Integration and Future Directions. Academy of Management Review, 15(2), 241–264. doi:10.2307/258156.
Oliver, C. (1991). Strategic Responses to Institutional Processes. Academy of Management Review, 16(1), 145–179. doi:10.2307/258610.
Ossewaarde, R., Nijhof, A., & Heyse, L. (2008). Dynamics of NGO legitimacy: how organizing betrays core missions of INGOs. Public Administration and Development, 28(1), 42–56. doi:10.1002/pad.472.
Pérouse de Montclos, M.-A. (2005). Les ONG humanitaires sur la sellette. Etudes, 12(403), 607–616.
Phillips, R.: 1997, ‹Stakeholder Theory and a Principle of Fairness’, Business Ethics Quarterly 7, 51–67. doi:10.2307/3857232
Phillips, R. (2002). Is Corporate Engagement an Advocacy Strategy for NGOs? Nonprofit Management & Leadership, 13(2), 123–137. doi:10.1002/nml.13202.
Phillips, R. 2003. Stakeholder theory and Organization Ethics. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Phillips, R., & Caldwell, C. (2005). Value Chain Responsibility: A Farewell to Arm’s Length. Business and Society Review, 110(4), 345–370. doi:10.1111/j.0045-3609.2005.00020.x.
Quiennec, E. (2007). La Croissance des ONG humanitaires. Une innovation devenue Institution. Revue Française de Gestion, 33(177), 83–94. doi:10.3166/rfg.177.83-94.
Rehbein, K., Waddock, S., & Graves, S.B. (2004). Understanding shareholder activism: Which corporations are targeted? Business & Society, 43, 239–267. doi:10.1177/0007650304266869.
Rondinelli, D. and T. London: 2002, ‹Stakeholder and Corporate Responsibilities in Cross-Sectoral Environmental Collaborations’, in J. Andriof, S. Waddock, B. Husted and S. Sutherland Rahman (eds.), Unfolding Stakeholder Thinking (Greenleaf Publishing, Sheffield), pp. 201–215
Savage, G., Nix, T., Whitehead, J., & Blair, J. (1991). Strategies for assessing and managing organizational stakeholders. Academy of Management Review, 5(2), 61–75.
Schepers, D. (2006). The impact of NGO network conflict on the corporate social responsibility strategies of multinational corporations. Business & Society, 45(3), 282–299. doi:10.1177/0007650306289386.
Spar, D., & La Mure, L. (2003). The Power of Activism: Assessing the Impact of NGOs on Global Business. California Management Review, 45(3), 78–100.
Stafford, E., Polonsky, M., & Hartman, C. (2000). Environmental NGO-Business Collaboration and Strategic Bridging: A Case Analysis of the Greenpeace-Foron Alliance. Business Strategy and the Environment, 9, 122–135. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0836(200003/04)9:2<122::AID-BSE232>3.0.CO;2-C.
Steger, U.: 2006, Inside the Mind of the Stakeholder. The Hype behind Stakeholder Pressure (Palgrave-McMillan)
Ulrich, P.: 1995, ‹Business in the Nineties: Facing Public Interest’, in P. Ulrich and C. Sarasin (eds.), Facing Public Interest. The Ethical Challenge to Business Policy and Corporate Communication (Kluwer, Dordrecht), pp. 1–8
Waxenberger, B., & Spence, L. (2003). Reinterpretation of a metaphor: from stakes to claims. Strategic Change, 12, 239–249. doi:10.1002/jsc.638.
Whawell, P. (1998). The Ethics of Pressure Groups. Business Ethics a European Review, 7(3), 178–181. doi:10.1111/1467-8608.00103.
Winston, M. (2002). NGO strategies for promoting corporate social responsibility. Ethics & International Affairs, 16(1), 71–87. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7093.2002.tb00376.x.
Wogaman, P. (1985). The Ethical Premise for Social Activism. Business and Society Review, 54, 30–36.
Yaziji, M. (2004). Turning gadflies into allies. Harvard Business Review, 82(2), 110–115.
Zietsma, C. and M. Winn: 2008, ‹Building Chains and Directing Flows. Strategies and Tactics of Mutual Influence in Stakeholder Conflicts’, Business & Society 47(1), 68–101. doi:10.1177/0007650307306641
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Fassin, Y. Inconsistencies in Activists’ Behaviours and the Ethics of NGOs. J Bus Ethics 90, 503–521 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0056-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0056-6