Abstract
Wind farm implementation is a rapidly growing source of landscape transformation that may alter ecological processes such as predator–prey interactions. We tested the hypothesis that wind farms increase the activity of nest predators and, ultimately, increment ground-nest predation rates. We placed 18 plots in Iberian shrub-steppes (11 at control and seven at wind farm sites), each one comprised nine artificial ground-nests (three quail eggs/nest). Artificial nests were placed during two events: at the beginning (April) and at the end (June) of the breeding season in 2016 (n = 324 artificial nests). We estimated the relative abundance of avian and large mammalian predators in the surroundings of each plot and recorded nest fate after 12 days exposure. We also measured variables at landscape and microhabitat scale that potentially affect predator abundance and nest predation. Wind farm sites contained higher cover of gravel roads and more large mammalian predators. Moreover, the abundance of large mammalian predators increased with surrounding cover of both trees and gravel-roads. Avian predator abundance and nest predation rates did not differ between control and wind farm sites, though nest predation did increase with the surrounding cover of crops and gravel roads. Lastly, nest predation was higher at the end of the breeding season and decreased with moss and lichen cover. Our results support previous evidence on the increase of mammalian predator abundance as the surface area of gravel-roads increases, pointing towards a potential mechanism for wind farms leading to rise ground-nest predation. Future wind energy projects should minimize the development of gravel-roads for wind turbine access or maintenance.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data will be submitted to an appropriate public data repository.
Code availability
R-code will be submitted to an appropriate public repository.
References
Ashley EP, Robinson JT (1996) Road mortality of amphibians, reptiles and other wildlife on the long point causeway, Lake Erie, Ontario. Can Field-Nat 110:403–412
Atienza JC, Martín Fierro I, Infante O et al (2011) Directrices para la evaluación del impacto de los parques eólicos en aves y murciélagos (versión 3.0). SEO/BirdLife, Madrid
Bang P, Dahlstrøm P, Mears R (2007) Animal tracks and signs . Oxford University Press, Oxford
Barrientos R, Valera F, Barbosa A et al (2009) Plasticity of nest-site selection in the trumpeter finch: a comparison between two different habitats. Acta Oecologica 35:499–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actao.2009.03.005
Barrios L, Rodríguez A (2004) Behavioural and environmental correlates of soaring-bird mortality an an-shore wind turbines. J Appl Ecol 41:72–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2004.00876.x
Benson TJ, Brown JD, Bednarz JC (2010) Identifying predators clarifies predictors of nest success in a temperate passerine. J Anim Ecol 79:225–234. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2009.01604.x
Benton TG, Vickery JA, Wilson JD (2003) Farmland biodiversity: is habitat heterogeneity the key? Trends Ecol Evol 18:182–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00011-9
Best LB (1978) Field sparrow reproductive success and nesting ecology. Auk 95:9–22. https://doi.org/10.2307/4085491
BirdLife International (2015) European Red List of Birds. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/info/euroredlist. Accessed 20 Oct 2020
Bose A, Dürr T, Klenke RA, Henle K (2018) Collision sensitive niche profile of the worst affected bird-groups at wind turbine structures in the Federal State of Brandenburg, Germany. Sci Rep 8:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-22178-z
Buehler R, Bosco L, Arlettaz R, Jacot A (2017) Nest site preferences of the Woodlark (Lullula arborea) and its association with artificial nest predation. Acta Oecologica 78:41–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actao.2016.12.004
Burfield IJ (2005) The conservation status of steppic birds in Europe. In: Bota G, Morales MB, Mañosa S, Camprodon J (eds) Ecology and conservation of steppe-land birds. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, pp 69–102
Cabrera-Cruz SA, Villegas-Patraca R (2016) Response of migrating raptors to an increasing number of wind farms. J Appl Ecol 53:1667–1675. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12673
Calero-Riestra M, García JT, Herranz J, Suárez F (2013) Breeding output and nest predation patterns in steppe-associated Mediterranean birds: the case of the Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris. J Ornithol 154:289–298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-012-0893-4
Campedelli T, Londi G, Cutini S et al (2013) Raptor displacement due to the construction of a wind farm: preliminary results after the first 2 years since the construction. Ethol Ecol Evol 26:376–391. https://doi.org/10.1080/03949370.2013.862305
Chalfoun AD, Thompson FR, Ratnaswamy MJ (2002) Nest predators and fragmentation: a review and meta-analysis. Conserv Biol 16:306–318. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00308.x
Dahl EL, Bevanger K, Nygård T, Røskaft E, Stokke BG (2012) Reduced breeding success in white-tailed eagles at Smøla windfarm, western Norway, is caused by mortality and displacement. Biol Conserv 145:79–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.10.012
De Lucas M, Janss GFE, Ferrer M (2004) The effects of a wind farm on birds in a migration point: the Strait of Gibraltar. Biodivers Conserv 13:395–407. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BIOC.0000006507.22024.93
De Lucas M, Janss GFE, Whitfield DP, Ferrer M (2008) Collision fatality of raptors in wind farms does not depend on raptor abundance. J Appl Ecol 45:1695–1703. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2008.01549.x
De Lucas M, Ferrer M, Bechard MJ, Muñoz AR (2012) Griffon vulture moratlity at wind farms in souther Spain: distribution of fatalities and active mitigation measures. Biol Conserv 147:184–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.12.029
Degregorio BA, Weatherhead PJ, Sperry JH (2014) Power lines, roads, and avian nest survival: effects on predator identity and predation intensity. Ecol Evol 4:1589–1600. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.1049
Devereux CL, Denny MJH, Whittingham MJ (2008) Minimal effects of wind turbines on the distribution of wintering farmland birds. J Appl Ecol 45:1689–1694. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2008.01560.x
Díaz JA, Monasterio C, Salvador A (2006) Abundance, microhabitat selection and conservation of eyed lizards (Lacerta lepida): a radiotelemetric study. J Zool 268:295–301. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2005.00031.x
Erickson WP, Wolfe MM, Bay KJ et al (2014) A comprehensive analysis of small-passerine fatalities from collision with turbines at wind energy facilities. PLoS ONE 9:e107491. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0107491
Escandell V (2017) Sacre. Tendencia de las aves en primavera. Programas de seguimiento de Avifauna y grupos de trabajo. SEOBirdlife, Madrid, pp 4–11
Evans KL (2003) The potential for interactions between predation and habitat change to cause population declines of farmland birds. Ibis 146:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00231.x
Evans DM, Redpath SM, Evans SA (2005) Seasonal patterns in the productivity of Meadow Pipits in the uplands of Scotland. J Field Ornithol 76:245–251. https://doi.org/10.1648/0273-8570-76.3.245
Farfán MA, Vargas JM, Duarte J, Real R (2009) What is the impact of wind farms on birds? A case study in southern Spain. Biodivers Conserv 18:3743–3758
Fernández-Llario P (2017) Jabalí—Sus scrofa. In: Salvador A, Borja I (eds) Enciclopedia Virtual de los Vertebrados Españoles. Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid
Fernández-Bellon D, Wilson MW, Irwin S, O’Halloran J (2019) Effects of development of wind energy and associated changes in land use on bird densities in upland areas. Conserv Biol 33:413–422. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13239
Fox J, Monette G (1992) Generalized collinearity diagnostics. J Am Stat Assoc 87:178–183
Frey SN, Conover MR (2006) Habitat use by meso-predators in a corridor environment. J Wildl Manag 70:1111–1118. https://doi.org/10.2193/0022-541X(2006)70[1111:HUBMIA]2.0.CO;2
Fuglstad GA, Simpson D, Lindgren F, Rue H (2019) Constructing priors that penalize the complexity of gaussian random fields. J Am Stat Assoc 114:445–452. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.2017.1415907
Garvin JC, Jennelle CS, Drake D, Grodsky SM (2011) Response of raptors to a windfarm. J Appl Ecol 48:199–209. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01912.x
Garza V, Traba J (2016) Alondra ricotí, el fantasma del páramo. Quercus 359:24–33
Garza V, Suárez F, Herranz J et al (2005) Home range, territoriality and habitat selection by the Dupont’s lark Chersophilus duponti during the breeding and postbreeding periods. Ardeola 52:133–146
Gillespie MK, Dinsmore SJ (2014) Nest survival of Red-winged Blackbirds in agricultural areas developed for wind energy. Agric Ecosyst Environ 197:53–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2014.07.012
Gómez-Rubio V (2020) Bayesian inference with INLA. Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, Boca Raton
Gómez-Catasús J, Garza V, Traba J (2018a) Wind farms affect the occurrence, abundance and population trends of small passerine birds: the case of the Dupont’s lark. J Appl Ecol 55:2033–2042. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13107
Gómez-Catasús J, Pérez-Granados C, Barrero A et al (2018b) European population trends and current conservation status of an endangered steppe-bird species: the Dupont’s lark Chersophilus duponti. PeerJ 6:e5627. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5627
Gómez-Catasús J, Garza V, Morales MB, Traba J (2019) Hierarchical habitat-use by an endangered steppe bird in fragmented landscapes is associated with large connected patches and high food availability. Sci Rep 9:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-55467-2
Grant TA, Shaffer TL, Madden EM, Pietz PJ (2005) Time-specific variation in passerine nest survival: new insights into old questions. Auk. https://doi.org/10.1093/auk/122.2.661
Güthlin D, Storch I, Küchenhoff H (2014) Toward reliable estimates of abundance: comparing index methods to assess the abundance of a mammalian predator. PLoS ONE 9:e94537. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0094537
Hatchett ES, Hale AM, Bennett VJ, Karsten KB (2013) Wind turbines do not negatively affect nest success in the Dickcissel (Spiza americana). Auk 130:520–528. https://doi.org/10.1525/auk.2013.12187
Hatchwell BJ, Chamberlain DE, Perrins CM (1996) The reproductive success of Blackbirds Turdus merula in relation to habitat structure and choice of nest site. Ibis 138:256–262. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919x.1996.tb04337.x
Hethcoat MG, Chalfoun AD (2015a) Towards a mechanistic understanding of human- induced rapid environmental change: a case study linking energy development, nest predation and predators. J Appl Ecol 52:1492–1499. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12513
Hethcoat MG, Chalfoun AD (2015b) Energy development and avian nest survival in Wyoming, USA: a test of a common disturbance index. Biol Conserv 184:327–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.02.009
Keehn JE, Feldman CR (2018) Disturbance affects biotic community composition at desert wind farms. Wildl Res 45:383–396. https://doi.org/10.1071/WR17059
Krüger H, Väänänen VM, Holopainen S, Nummi P (2018) The new faces of nest predation in agricultural landscapes—a wildlife camera survey with artificial nests. Eur J Wildl Res 64:76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-018-1233-7
Laiolo P, Tella JL (2006) Fate of unproductive and unattractive habitats: recent changes in Iberian steppes and their effects on endangered avifauna. Environ Conserv 33:223–232. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892906003146
Laurance WF, Yensen E (1991) Predicting the impacts of edge effects in fragmented habitats. Biol Conserv 55:77–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(91)90006-U
Lindgren F, Rue H, Lindström J (2011) An explicit link between gaussian fields and gaussian markov random fields: the stochastic partial differential equation approach. J R Stat Soc Ser B 73:423–498. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9868.2011.00777.x
López-Martín JM (2010) Zorro—Vulpes vulpes Linnaeus, 1758. In: Salvador A, Borja I (eds) Enciclopedia Virtual de los Vertebrados Españoles. Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid
Mahoney A, Chalfoun AD (2016) Reproductive success of Horned Lark and McCown’s Longspur in relation to wind energy infrastructure. Condor 118:360–375. https://doi.org/10.1650/CONDOR-15-25.1
Major RE, Kendal CE (1996) The contribution of artificial nest experiments to understanding avian reproductive success: a review of methods and conclusions. Ibis 138:298–307. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919x.1996.tb04342.x
Martin TE (1993) Nest predation among vegetation layers and habitat types: revising the dogmas. Am Nat 141:897–913. https://doi.org/10.1086/285515
Martínez-Abraín A, Tavecchia G, Regan HM et al (2012) Effects of wind farms and food scarcity on a large scavenging bird species following an epidemic of bovine spongiform encephalopathy. J Appl Ecol 49:109–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02080.x
Masden EA, Haydon DT, Fox AD et al (2009) Barriers to movement: impacts of wind farms on migrating birds. ICES J Mar Sci 66:746–753. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsp031
Moore RP, Robinson WD (2004) Artificial bird nests, external validity, and bias in ecological field studies. Ecology 85:1562–1567. https://doi.org/10.1890/03-0088
Morales MB, Traba J, Carriles E et al (2008) Sexual differences in microhabitat selection of breeding little bustards Tetrax tetrax: ecological segregation based on vegetation structure. Acta Oecologica 34:345–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actao.2008.06.009
Myer MH, Campbell SR, Johnston JM (2017) Spatiotemporal modeling of ecological and sociological predictors of West Nile virus in Suffolk County, NY, mosquitoes. Ecosphere 8:e01854. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1854
Ottvall R, Larsson K, Smith HG (2005) Nesting success in Redshank Tringa totanus breeding on coastal meadows and the importance of habitat features used as perches by avian predators. Bird Study 52:289–296. https://doi.org/10.1080/00063650509461402
Pearce-Higgins JW, Stephen L, Langston RHW et al (2009) The distribution of breeding birds around upland wind farms. J Appl Ecol 46:1323–1331. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01715.x
Pérez-Granados C, López-Iborra GM, Garza V, Traba J (2017) Breeding biology of the endangered Dupont’s Lark Chersophilus duponti in two separate Spanish shrub-steppes. Bird Study 64:328–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/00063657.2017.1359232
Ponce C, Salgado I, Bravo C et al (2018) Effects of farming practices on nesting success of steppe birds in dry cereal farmland. Eur J Wildl Res 64:13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-018-1167-0
Praus L, Weidinger K (2015) Breeding biology of skylarks Alauda arvensis in maize and other crop fields. Acta Ornithol 50:59–68. https://doi.org/10.3161/00016454ao2015.50.1.007
Quantum GIS Development Team (2019) Quantum GIS Geographic Information System. Open Source Geospatial Foundation Project. http://qgis.osgeo.org
R Core Team (2019) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna
Ricklefs RE (1969) An analysis of nesting mortality in birds . Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington
Rodríguez-Pastor R, Luque-Larena JJ, Lambin X, Mougeot F (2016) “Living on the edge”: the role of field margins for common vole (Microtus arvalis) populations in recently colonised Mediterranean farmland. Agric Ecosyst Environ 231:206–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2016.06.041
Rogers AM, Gibson MR, Pockette T et al (2014) Scavenging of migratory bird carcasses in the Sonoran Desert. Southwest Nat 59:544–549. https://doi.org/10.1894/mcg-08.1
Rotenberry JT, Wiens JA (1980) Habitat structure, patchiness, and avian communities in North American steppe vegetation: a multivariate analysis. Ecology 61:1228–1250. https://doi.org/10.2307/1936840
Rubenstahl TG, Hale AM, Karsten KB (2012) Nesting success of scissor-tailed flycatchers (Tyrannus forficatus) at a wind farm in Northern Texas. Southwest Nat 57:189–194. https://doi.org/10.1894/0038-4909-57.2.189
Rue H, Martino S, Chopin N (2009) Approximate Bayesian inference for latent Gaussian models by using integrated nested Laplace approximations. J R Stat Soc Ser B 71:319–392. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9868.2008.00700.x
Ruiz-Capillas P, Mata C, Malo JE (2013) Road verges are refuges for small mammal populations in extensively managed Mediterranean landscapes. Biol Conserv 158:223–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2012.09.025
Sanders LE, Chalfoun AD (2019) Mechanisms underlying increased nest predation in natural gas fields: a test of the mesopredator release hypothesis. Ecosphere 10:e02738. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.2738
Sanderson FJ, Donald PF, Burfield IJ (2005) Farmland birds in Europe: from policy change to population decline and back again. In: Bota G, Morales MB, Mañosa S, Camprodon J (eds) Ecology and conservation of steppe-land birds. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, pp 69–102
Simpson D, Rue H, Riebler A et al (2017) Penalising model component complexity: a principled, practical approach to constructing priors. Stat Sci 32:1–28. https://doi.org/10.1214/16-STS576
SIOSE (2011) Documento Técnico SIOSE 2011—Versión 1.1. Sistema de Información de Ocupación del Suelo en España. Ministerio de Fomento, Spain. http://www.siose.es/
Smith JA, Dwyer JF (2016) Avian interactions with renewable energy infrastructure: an update. Condor 118:411–423. https://doi.org/10.1650/condor-15-61.1
Smith RK, Pullin AS, Stewart GB, Sutherland WJ (2010) Effectiveness of predator removal for enhancing bird populations. Conserv Biol 24:820–829. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01421.x
Stevens TK, Hale AM, Karsten KB, Bennett VJ (2013) An analysis of displacement from wind turbines in a wintering grassland bird community. Biodivers Conserv 22:1755–1767. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-013-0510-8
Suárez F, Yanes M, Herranz J, Manrique J (1993) Nature reserves and the conservation of Iberian shrubsteppe passerines: the paradox of nest predation. Biol Conserv 64:77–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(93)90385-E
Suárez F, Traba J, Herranz J (2005) Body mass changes in female tawny pipits Anthus campestris during the nesting stage. J Ornithol 146:372–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-005-0092-7
Suárez F, Hervás I, Herranz J (2009) Las alondras de España peninsular. Dirección General para la Biodiversidad. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino, Madrid, Spain
Tewksbury JJ, Garner L, Garner S et al (2006) Tests of landscape influence: nest predation and brood parasitism in fragmented ecosystems. Ecology 87:759–768. https://doi.org/10.1890/04-1790
Thaker M, Zambre A, Bhosale H (2018) Wind farms have cascading impacts on ecosystems across trophic levels. Nat Ecol Evol 2:1854–1858. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-018-0707-z
Thompson FR, Burhans DE (2004) Differences in predators of artificial and real songbird nests: evidence of bias in artificial nest studies. Conserv Biol 18:373–380. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00167.x
Trombulak SC, Frissell CA (2000) Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conserv Biol 14:18–30. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99084.x
Tylianakis JM, Didham RK, Bascompte J, Wardle DA (2008) Global change and species interactions in terrestrial ecosystems. Ecol Lett 11:1351–1363. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01250.x
Van Der Ree R, Smith DJ, Grilo C (2015) Handbook of road ecology. Wiley, Oxford
Vögeli M, Laiolo P, Serrano D, Tella JL (2011) Predation of experimental nests is linked to local population dynamics in a fragmented bird population. Biol Lett 7:954–957
Ward EJ, Jannot JE, Lee YW et al (2015) Using spatiotemporal species distribution models to identify temporally evolving hotspots of species co-occurrence. Ecol Appl 25:2198–2209. https://doi.org/10.1890/15-0051.1
Watanabe S (2010) Asymptotic equivalence of Bayes cross validation and widely applicable information criterion in singular learning theory. J Mach Learn Res 11:3571–3594
Whittingham MJ, Evans KL (2004) The effects of habitat structure on predation risk of birds in agricultural landscapes. Ibis 146:210–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00370.x
Widen P (1994) Habitat quality for raptors: a field experiment. J Avian Biol 25:219–223. https://doi.org/10.2307/3677078
Williams GE, Wood PB (2002) Are traditional methods of determining nest predators and nest fates reliable? An experiment with wood thrushes (Hylocichla mustelina) using miniature video cameras. Auk 119:1126–1132. https://doi.org/10.1093/auk/119.4.1126
Wilson MW, Fernández-Bellon D, Irwin S, O’Halloran J (2017) Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus population trends in relation to wind farms. Bird Study 64:20–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/00063657.2016.1262815
Winder VL, Gregory AJ, McNew LB, Sandercock BK (2015) Responses of male Greater Prairie-Chickens to wind energy development. Condor 117:284–296. https://doi.org/10.1650/CONDOR-14-98.1
Wright LJ, Hoblyn RA, Green RE et al (2009) Importance of climatic and environmental change in the demography of a multi-brooded passerine, the woodlark Lullula arborea. J Anim Ecol 78:1191–1202. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2009.01582.x
Yanes M, Suarez F (1995) Nest predation patterns in ground-nesting passerines on the Iberian Peninsula. Ecography 18:423–428. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.1995.tb00145.x
Yanes M, Suarez F (1996) Incidental nest predation and lark conservation in an iberian semiarid shrubsteppe. Conserv Biol 10:881–887. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10030881.x
Yanes M, Herranz J, Suárez F (1996) Nest microhabitat selection in larks from a European semi- arid shrub- steppe: the role of sunlight and predation. J Arid Environ. https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.1996.0040
Zuur AF, Ieno EN, Saveliev AA (2017) Beginner’s guide to spatial, temporal, and spatial-temporal ecological data analysis with R-INLA. Newburgh, UK
Zwart MC, Dunn JC, McGowan PJK, Whittingham MJ (2016) Wind farm noise suppresses territorial defense behavior in a songbird. Behav Ecol 27:101–108. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arv128
Acknowledgements
We thank Inmaculada Abril Colón and Vicente Garza for her invaluable support and collaboration during field sampling. We are grateful to two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments that helped to improve the manuscript.
Funding
This study was supported by Tragsatec—GrupoTragsa (project entitled “Effects of wind farms on Dupont’s lark nest predation”), the European Commission (Life-Ricotí project LIFE15-NAT-ES-000802) and the BBVA Foundation (BBVA-Dron Ricotí project). This paper contributes to project REMEDINAL-3 from CAM.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
JGC: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal Analysis, Investigation and Writing—Original Draft, Visualization. AB: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation and Writing—Review & Editing. MR: Investigation and Writing—Review & Editing. DBR: Investigation and Writing—Review & Editing. CPG: Investigation and Writing—Review & Editing. JT: Writing—Review & Editing, Supervision, Project administration and Funding acquisition.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interest.
Additional information
Communicated by Ailsa J. McKenzie.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gómez-Catasús, J., Barrero, A., Reverter, M. et al. Landscape features associated to wind farms increase mammalian predator abundance and ground-nest predation. Biodivers Conserv 30, 2581–2604 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-021-02212-9
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-021-02212-9