Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

A home away from home: insights from successful leopard (Panthera pardus) translocations

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Biodiversity and Conservation Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

When protected carnivores harm people’s livelihoods, conservationists often seek non-lethal mitigation strategies. Large carnivore translocation is one such strategy but it has shown limited success. Many reported examples used methods that likely contributed to their failure. We conducted six leopard (Panthera pardus) translocations (three males, three females) within Namibia to test specific criteria for improved protocols. We moved leopards 402.7 km (SD = 279.6 km, range 47–754 km). Overall translocation success, using strict criteria, was 67 % and increased to 83 % when post-release conflict was not considered in this assessment. Four individuals successfully established new territories after exploratory periods of <2 months. One female died in a road accident shortly after release and a male resumed killing livestock that were illegally herded within a protected area. Both surviving females produced cubs—the ultimate sign of success. When compared with resident leopards (six males, six females), translocated individuals showed no significant difference in range behaviour, survivorship or likelihood of conflict. At their capture sites, livestock depredation ceased for a minimum of 16 months, thus at least temporarily alleviating conflict. We used our successful protocol to develop a translocation suitability model for determining appropriate release sites. For Namibia, this model predicts potential recipient habitat of 117,613 km2, an area sufficient to support up to 87 leopard translocations. Where alternative conservation strategies have failed and managers decide to proceed with translocations, we recommend the application of our conservative protocol to identify the most suitable recipient locations. Our study demonstrates the potential value of translocation under specific circumstances and as part of a larger conflict management repertoire. Our findings are useful for management of other large carnivores and conflict wildlife.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Agostinelli C, Lund U (2013) R package ‘circular’: circular statistics (version 0.4-7)

  • Athreya VR, Thakur SS, Chaudhuri S, Belsare AV (2007) Leopards in human-dominated areas: a spillover from sustained translocations into nearby forests? J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 104:45–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Athreya V, Odden M, Linnell JDC, Karanth KU (2011) Translocation as a tool for mitigating conflict with leopards in human-dominated landscapes of India. Conserv Biol 25:133–141

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Athreya V, Odden M, Linnell JDC, Krishnaswamy J, Karanth U (2013) Big cats in our backyards: persistence of large carnivores in a human dominated landscape in India. PLoS One. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057872

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey TN (1993) The African leopard: a study of the ecology and behaviour of a solitary felid. Columbia University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradley EH, Pletscher DH, Bangs EE, Kunkel KE, Smith DW, Mack CM, Meier TJ, Fontaine JA, Niemeyer CC, Jimenez MD (2005) Evaluating wolf translocation as a nonlethal method to reduce livestock conflicts in the Northwestern United States. Conserv Biol 9:1498–1508

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caro TM, Young CR, Cauldwell AE, Brown DDE (2009) Animal breeding systems and big game hunting: models and application. Biol Conserv 142:909–929

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EIS (2014) Environmental Information Service Namibia online database. http://www.the-eis.com Accessed 29 June 2014

  • ESRI (2013) ArcGIS Desktop: Release 10.2. Environmental Systems Research Institute, Redlands

  • Fattebert J, Dickerson T, Balme G, Slotow R, Hunter L (2013) Long-distance natal dispersal in leopard reveals potential for a three-country metapopulation. S Afr J Wildl Res 43:61–67

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fies ML, Martin DD, Blank GT Jr (1987) Movements and rates of return of translocated black bears in Virginia. Ursus 7:369–372

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer J, Lindenmayer DB (2000) An assessment of the published results of animal relocations. Biol Conserv 96:1–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fontúrbel FE, Simonetti JA (2011) Translocations and human-carnivore conflicts: problem solving or problem creating? Wildl Biol 17:217–224

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodrich JM, Miquelle DG (2005) Translocation of problem Amur tigers Panthera tigris altaica to alleviate tiger-human conflicts. Oryx 39:1–4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gusset M, Stewart GB, Bowler DE, Pullin AS (2010) Wild dog reintroductions in South Africa: a systematic review and cross-validation of an endangered species recovery programme. J Nat Conserv 18:230–234

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton PH (1981) The leopard Panthera paradus and the cheetah Acinonyx jubatus in Kenya. Report for the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service and The Government of Kenya, Nairobi

  • Hayward MW, Adendorff J, Moolman L, Hayward GJ, Kerley GIH (2006) The successful reintroduction of leopard Panthera pardus to the Addo Elephant National Park. Afr J Ecol 45:103–104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hebblewhite M, Miquelle DG, Murzin AA, Aramilev VV, Pikunov DG (2011) Predicting potential habitat and population size for reintroduction of the far Eastern leopards in the Russian Far East. Biol Conserv 144:2403–2413

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Houser A, Gusset M, Bragg CJ, Boast LK, Somers MJ (2011) Pre-release hunting training and post-release monitoring are key components in the rehabilitation of orphaned large felids. S Afr J Wildl Res 41:11–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inskip C, Zimmermann A (2009) Human-felid conflict: a review of patterns and priorities worldwide. Oryx 43:18–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) & UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) (2014) The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA). UNEP-WCMC. Cambridge. http://www.protectedplanet.net. Accessed 29 June 2014

  • Kenward R (2001) A manual for wildlife radio-tagging. Academic Press, San Diego, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerth G, Gusset M, Garbely J, König B, Gabanapelo T, Schiess-Meier M (2013) Genetic sexing of stock-raiding leopards: not only males to blame. Conserv Genet Resour. doi:10.1007/s12686-013-9979-4

    Google Scholar 

  • Leighton FA (2002) Health risk assessment of the translocation of wild animals. Rev Sci Tech Off Int Epizoot 21:187–195

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lemeris Jr. JR (2013) Identifying areas of socio-ecological value for the translocation of perceived conflict cheetah (A. jubatus) and leopard (P. pardus) in Namibia. M.Sc. thesis, Duke University

  • Lemeris Jr. JR (2015) CaTSuiT for leopard. http://www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?id=689e9daab619400c875905e9fb3a16d5

  • Lindsey PA, du Toit JT, Mills MGL (2004) Area and prey requirements of African wild dogs under varying habitat conditions: implications for reintroductions. S Afr J Wildl Res 34:77–86

    Google Scholar 

  • Linnell JDC, Aanes R, Swenson JE, Odden J, Smith ME (1997) Translocation of carnivores as a method for managing problem animals: a review. Biodivers Conserv 6:1245–1257

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maciejewski K, Kerley GIH (2014) Understanding tourists’ preference for mammal species in private protected areas: is there a case for extralimital species for ecotourism? PLoS One. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088192

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Massei G, Roger J, Quy A, Gurney J, Cowan DP (2010) Can translocations be used to mitigate human–wildlife conflicts? Wildl Res 37:428–439

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) (2012) Regulations for large carnivores in captivity: nature conservation ordinance, 1975. Government Gazette of the Republic of Namibia No. 4911, Windhoek, Namibia

  • Mondal K, Bhattacharjee S, Gupta S, Sankar K, Qureshi Q (2013) Home range and resource selection of ‘problem’ leopards trans-located to forested habitat. Curr Sci 105:338–345

    Google Scholar 

  • Namibia Statistics Agency (2012) Namibia 2011: population & housing census main report. Windhoek, Namibia. http://www.nsa.org.na/files/downloads/Namibia%202011%20Population%20and%20Housing%20Census%20Main%20Report.pdf. Accessed 29 June 2014

  • Nams VO (1990) LOCATE II. Pacer Computer Software, Truto

  • Nowell K, Jackson P (1996) Wild cats: status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN Publications, Cambridge, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Odden M, Athreya V, Rattan S, Linnell JDC (2014) Adaptable neighbours: movement patterns of GPS-collared leopards in human dominated landscapes in India. PLoS One. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0112044

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogada MO, Woodroffe R, Oguge NO, Frank LG (2003) Limiting depredation by African carnivores: the role of livestock husbandry. Conserv Biol 17:1521–1530

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Packer C, Kosmala M, Cooley HS, Brink H, Pintea L, Garshelis D, Purchase G, Strauss M, Swanson A, Balme G, Hunter L, Nowell K (2009) Sport hunting, predator control and conservation of large carnivores. PLoS One. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005941

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pollock KH, Winterstein SR, Bunck CM, Curtis PD (1989) Survival analysis in telemetry studies: the staggered entry design. J Wildl Manag 53:7–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Purchase GK (1998) An assessment of the success of a cheetah re-introduction project in Matusadona National Park. M.Sc. thesis, University of Zimbabwe

  • R Core Team (2014) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna

    Google Scholar 

  • Riley SJ, Aune K, Mace RD, Madel MJ (1994) Translocation of nuisance grizzly bears in Northwestern Montana. Ursus 9:567–573

    Google Scholar 

  • Ripple WJ, Estes JA, Beschta RL, Wilmers CC, Ritchie EG, Hebblewhite M, Berger J, Elmhagen B, Letnic M, Nelson MP, Schmitz OJ, Smith DW, Wallach AD, Wirsing AJ (2014) Status and ecological effects of the world’s largest carnivores. Science 343:151–162

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruth TK, Logan KA, Sweanor LL, Hornocker MG, Temple LJ (1998) Evaluating cougar translocation in New Mexico. J Wildl Manag 64:1264–1275

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schiess-Meier M, Ramsauer S, Gabanapelo T, König B (2006) Livestock predation—insights from problem animal control registers in Botswana. J Wildl Manag 71:1267–1274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shepherd SM, Mills A, Shoff WH (2014) Human attacks by large felid carnivores in captivity and in the wild. Wilderness Environ Med 25:220–230

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner JD, Smithers RHN (1990) The mammals of the Southern African Subregion. University of Pretoria, Pretoria

    Google Scholar 

  • Stander PE (1990) A suggested management strategy for stock raiding lions in Namibia. S Afr J Wildl Res 20:37–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Stander PE, Llau K, Lui N, Dabe T, Dabe D (1997a) Non-consumptive utilisation of leopards: community conservation and ecotourism in practice. In: Proceedings of a symposium on lions and leopards as game ranch animals, Onderstepoort

  • Stander PE, Ghau II, Tsisaba D, Oma II (1997b) Tracking and the interpretation of spoor: a scientifically sound method in ecology. J Zool Lond 242:329–341

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stein A, Hayssen V (2013) Panthera pardus (Carnivora: Felidae). Mamm Species 45:30–48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stein AB, Fuller TK, Damery DT, Sievert L, Marker LL (2010) Farm management and economic analyses of leopard conservation in north-central Namibia. Anim Conserv 13:419–427

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stein AB, Fuller TK, Destefano S, Marker LL (2011) Leopard population and home range estimates in north-central Namibia. Afr J Ecol 49:383–387

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stein AB, Aschenborn O, Kastern M, Andreas A, Thompson S (2012) Namibia large carnivore atlas. Report, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Windhoek, Namibia

  • Storfer A (1999) Gene flow and endangered species translocations: a topic revisited. Biol Conserv 87:173–180

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treves A, Karanth UK (2003) Human-carnivore conflict and perspectives on carnivore management worldwide. Conserv Biol 17:1491–1499

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uphyrkina O, O’Brien SJ (2003) Applying molecular genetic tools to the conservation and action plan for the critically endangered far eastern leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis). C R Biol 326:S93–S97

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uphyrkina O, Johnson WE, Quigley H, Miquelle D, Marker L, Bush M, O’Brien SJ (2001) Phylogenetics, genome diversity and origin of modern leopard, Panthera pardus. Mol Ecol 10:2617–2633

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wall J (2014) Movement ecology tools for ArcGIS (ArcMET) v. 10.2.2 v2

  • Weilenmann M, Gusset M, Mills DR, Gabanapelo T, Schiess-Meier M (2010) Is translocation of stock-raiding leopards into a protected area with resident conspecifics an effective management tool? Wildl Res 37:702–707

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weise FJ, Stratford KJ, van Vuuren RJ (2014) Financial costs of large carnivore translocations—accounting for conservation. PLoS One. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105042

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodroffe R, Frank LG, Lindsey PA, ole Ranah SMK, Romañach S (2007) Livestock husbandry as a tool for carnivore conservation in Africa’s community rangelands: a case–control study. Biodivers Conserv 16:1245–1260

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank the MET for research permits as well as logistical support. Research at N/a’an ku sê was in part funded by grants from the National Geographic Big Cats Initiative (Grant Numbers: B10-11 and B12-13). We thank Chester Zoo, Colchester Zoo, Sea World and Busch Gardens, SPOTS Foundation, Land Rover SA, Bank Windhoek, IDEA WILD and individual sponsors for financial and technical support. Carnivore research at Ongava Research Centre is funded by charitable donations from The Namibian Wildlife Conservation Trust (UK), West Midland Safari Park, the directors of Ongava Game Reserve, and the Zoological Society of Philadelphia. A. B. S. was funded by a J. William Fulbright Scholarship. We sincerely thank all management and staff on release reserves for assistance during translocations and monitoring. We thank research assistants, P. Gerngross and J. Vaatz for their contributions and A. Bowden for assistance with mapping. Comments from S. Pimm, M. Jones and two anonymous reviewers improved the quality of this article.

Animals

Research activities and management of animals were endorsed by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism in Namibia. Leopards were studied under permit numbers: 691/2003; 916/2005; 990/2005; 1254/2008; 1354/2009; 1459/2010; 1459/2011; 1748/2012; 1782/2013; 1843/2013; and 1888/2014.

Compliance with ethical standards and Conflict of Interest

Author Andrew B. Stein was funded by a J. William Fulbright Scholarship and received research equipment (tracking collars) from the Cheetah Conservation Fund in Namibia. Author Florian J. Weise received research Grants from the National Geographic Big Cats Initiative (Grant Numbers: B10-11 and B12-13). Authors Florian J. Weise, Rudie J. van Vuuren and Stuart J. Munro received research equipment from Chester Zoo (UK), Colchester Zoo (UK), Sea World and Busch Gardens (USA), SPOTS Foundation (NL), Land Rover SA (RSA), Bank Windhoek (NAM), IDEA WILD (USA) and received additional financial support from private sponsors. Author Ken J. Stratford’s work was funded by charitable donations from The Namibian Wildlife Conservation Trust (UK), West Midland Safari Park, the directors of Ongava Game Reserve, and the Zoological Society of Philadelphia. The authors declare that they have no further conflict of interest.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. N/a’an ku sê Research Programme, P.O. Box 99292, Windhoek, Namibia

    Florian J. Weise, Rudie J. van Vuuren & Stuart J. Munro

  2. Division of Biology and Conservation Ecology, School of Science and the Environment, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK

    Florian J. Weise

  3. Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Box 90328, Durham, NC, 27708, USA

    Joseph Lemeris Jr.

  4. National Geographic Society, Big Cats Initiative, 1145 17th St NW, Washington, DC, 20036, USA

    Joseph Lemeris Jr.

  5. Ongava Research Centre, P.O. Box 640, Outjo, Namibia

    Ken J. Stratford

  6. Ongava Game Reserve, P.O. Box 58, Okaukeujo, Namibia

    Stuart J. Crawford

  7. Cheetah Conservation Fund, P.O. Box 1755, Otjiwarongo, Namibia

    Laurie L. Marker

  8. Landmark College, 19 River Road, Putney, VT, 05346, USA

    Andrew B. Stein

  9. Department of Environmental Conservation, University of Massachusetts, 160 Holdsworth Way, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA

    Andrew B. Stein

Authors
  1. Florian J. Weise
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joseph Lemeris Jr.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ken J. Stratford
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Rudie J. van Vuuren
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Stuart J. Munro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Stuart J. Crawford
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Laurie L. Marker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Andrew B. Stein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Florian J. Weise or Andrew B. Stein.

Additional information

Communicated by Stuart Pimm.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (PDF 13 kb)

Supplementary material 2 (PDF 8 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Weise, F.J., Lemeris, J., Stratford, K.J. et al. A home away from home: insights from successful leopard (Panthera pardus) translocations. Biodivers Conserv 24, 1755–1774 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-015-0895-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-015-0895-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation