Skip to main content

Humans introduce viable seeds to the Arctic on footwear

Biological Invasions volume 14, pages 567–577 (2012)Cite this article

Abstract

Expanding visitation to Polar regions combined with climate warming increases the potential for alien species introduction and establishment. We quantified vascular plant propagule pressure associated with different groups of travelers to the high-Arctic archipelago of Svalbard, and evaluated the potential of introduced seeds to germinate under the most favorable average Svalbard soil temperature (10°C). We sampled the footwear of 259 travelers arriving by air to Svalbard during the summer of 2008, recording 1,019 seeds: a mean of 3.9 (±0.8) seeds per traveler. Assuming the seed influx is representative for the whole year, we estimate a yearly seed load of around 270,000 by this vector alone. Seeds of 53 species were identified from 17 families, with Poaceae having both highest diversity and number of seeds. Eight of the families identified are among those most invasive worldwide, while the majority of the species identified were non-native to Svalbard. The number of seeds was highest on footwear that had been used in forested and alpine areas in the 3 months prior to traveling to Svalbard, and increased with the amount of soil affixed to footwear. In total, 26% of the collected seeds germinated under simulated Svalbard conditions. Our results demonstrate high propagule transport through aviation to highly visited cold-climate regions and isolated islands is occurring. Alien species establishment is expected to increase with climate change, particularly in high latitude regions, making the need for regional management considerations a priority.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

References

  • Alsos IG, Eidesen PB, Ehrich D, Skrede I, Westergaard K, Jacobsen GH, Landvik J, Taberlet P, Brochmann C (2007) Frequent long-distance plant colonization in the changing Arctic. Science 316:1606–1609

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alsos IG, Gillespie L, Marusik YM (2009) Arctic islands, biology. In: Gillespie R, Clague DA (eds) Encyclopedia of Islands. University of California Press, Berkeley

    Google Scholar 

  • Alsos IG, Arnesen G, Sandbakk BE, Elven R (2011). http://svalbardflora.net. Accessed 20 Aug 2011

  • Ashton GV, Riedlecker EI, Ruiz GM (2008) First non-native crustacean established in coastal waters of Alaska. Aquat Biol 3:133–137

    Google Scholar 

  • Australia and SCAR (Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research) (2007) IPY Aliens in Antarctica. Information paper presented by the Government of Australia and the Scientific Committee on Antarctica Research: information paper 49. Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM XXX), New Dehli

  • Barnes DKA, Hodgson DA, Convey P, Allen CS, Clarke A (2006) Incursion and excursion of Antarctic biota: past, present and future. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 15:121–142. doi:10.1111/j.1466-822x.2006.00216.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baskin CC, Baskin JM (1998) Seeds: ecology, biogeography, and evolution of dormancy and germination. Academic Press, San Diego

    Google Scholar 

  • Biosecurity New Zealand (2010) Entering New Zealand. New Zealand Government, New Zealand. http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/enter. Accessed 6 May 2010

  • Cappers RTJ, Bekker RM, Jans JEA (2006) Digital seed atlas of the Netherlands. Groningen archaeological studies 4. Barkhuis Publishing, The Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlton JT (1985) Transoceanic and interoceanic dispersal of coastal marine organisms: the biology of ballast water. Mar Biol Ann Rev 23:313–371

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson ML, Shephard M (2007) Is the spread of non-native plants in Alaska accelerating? Meeting the challenge: invasive plants in Pacific Northwest ecosystems. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR

  • Clifford HT (1956) Seed dispersal on footwear. Proc Bot Soc Br Isles 2:129–131

    Google Scholar 

  • Colautti RI, Grigorovich IA, MacIsaac HJ (2006) Propagule pressure: a null model for biological invasions. Biol Invasions 8:1023–1037. doi:10.1007/s10530-005-3735-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Convey P, Frenot Y, Gremmen N, Bergstrom DM (2006) Biological invasions. In: Bergstrom DM, Convey P, Huskies AHL (eds) Trends in Antarctic terrestrial and limnetic ecosystems: Antarctica as a global indicator. Springer, The Netherlands, pp 194–220

    Google Scholar 

  • Coulson SJ, Refseth D (2004) The terrestrial and freshwater invertebrate fauna of Svalbard (and Jan Mayen). In: Prestrud P, Strøm H, Goldman H (eds) A catalogue of the terrestrial and marine animals of Svalbard. Norsk Polarinstitutt 201, pp 57–122

  • Curry CH, McCarthy JS, Darragh HM, Wake RA, Todhunter R, Terris J (2002) Could tourist boots act as vectors for disease transmission in Antarctica? J Travel Med 9:190–193

    Google Scholar 

  • Drake LA, Doblin MA, Dobbs FC (2007) Potential microbial bioinvasions via ships’ ballast water, sediment, and biofilm. Mar Poll Bull 55:333–341

    Google Scholar 

  • Elvebakk A (2005) A vegetation map of Svalbard on the scale 1:3.5 mill. Phytocoenologia 35:951–967

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elvebakk A, Prestrud P (1996) A catalogue of Svalbard plants, fungi, algae and cyanobacteria. Norsk Polarinstitutt 198, pp 1

  • Elven R, Elvebakk A (1996) Part 1. Vascular plants. In Elvebakk A, Prestrud P (eds) A catalogue of Svalbard plants, fungi, algae, and cyanobacteria. Norsk Polarinstitutt 198, pp 9–55

  • Elven R, Murray DF, Razzhivin V, Yurtsev BA (2011) Checklist of the panarctic flora (PAF). CAFF/University of Oslo, Oslo. http://gbif.no/paf. Accessed 20 Aug 2011

  • Falinski JB (1972) Anthropochory in xerothermic grasslands in the light of experimental data. Acta Soc Bot Pol 41:357–368

    Google Scholar 

  • Forbes BC, Monz C, Tolvanen A (2004) Ecological impacts of tourism in terrestrial polar ecosystems. In: Buckley R (ed) Environmental impacts of ecotourism. CAB International, Oxfordshire, pp 155–170

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Fredga K, Jaarola M, Ims RA, Steen H, Yoccoz NG (1990) The ‘common vole’ in Svalbard identified as Microtus epiroticus by chromosome analysis. Polar Res 8:283–290

    Google Scholar 

  • Frenot Y, Chown SL, Whinam J, Selkirk PM, Convey P, Skotnicki M, Bergstrom DM (2005) Biological invasions in the Antarctic: extent, impacts and implications. Biol Rev 80:45–72. doi:10.1017/s1464793104006542

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillespie GD (1985) Hybridization, introgression, and morphometric differentiation between Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and Grey Duck (Anas superciliosa) in Otago, New Zealand. The Auk 102:459–469

    Google Scholar 

  • Gollasch S (2002) The importance of ship hull fouling as a vector of species introductions in to the North Sea. Biofouling 18:105–121

    Google Scholar 

  • Governor of Svalbard (2006) Report on tourism statistics from Svalbard 1997–2006. Svalbard Sysselmannen. http://www.sysselmannen.no/hovedEnkel.aspx?m=45275. Accessed 10 Mar 2009

  • Hanssen-Bauer I (2002) Temperature and precipitation in Svalbard 1912–2050: measurements and scenarios. Polar Rec 38:225–232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Higashino PK, Guyer W, Stone CP (1983) The Kilauea wilderness marathon and crater rim runs: sole searching experiences. Newsl Hawaii Bot Soc 22:22–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Hines AH, Ruiz GM (2000) Biological invasions at cold-water coastal ecosystems: ballast- mediated introductions in Port Valdez/Prince William Sound. Final Report to Regional Citizens Advisory Council of Prince William Sound

  • Hodkinson DJ, Thompson K (1997) Plant dispersal: the role of man. J Appl Ecol 34:1484–1496

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes K, Lee J, Ware C, Kiefer K, Bergstrom D (2010) Impact of anthropogenic transportation to Antarctica on alien seed viability. Polar Biol 33:1125–1130. doi:10.1007/s00300-010-0801-4

    Google Scholar 

  • IAATO (International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators) (2010) Boot, clothing and equipment decontamination guidelines for small boat operators. IAATO. http://www.iaato.org/guidelines.html. Accessed 30 May 2010

  • ISSG (Invasive Species Specilist Group) (2010) Global invasive species database. http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/disclaimer.asp. Accessed 3 June 2010

  • Jónsdóttir IS (2005) Terrestrial ecosystems on Svalbard: heterogeneity, complexity and fragility from an arctic island perspective. Proc Roy Ir Acad 105B:155–165

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaltenborn BP (2000) Arctic-alpine environments and tourism: can sustainability be planned? lessons learned on Svalbard. Mt Res Dev 20:28–31

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirkbride JH Jr, Gunn CR, Dallwitz MJ (2006) Family guide for fruits and seeds. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. http://nt.ars-grin.gov/sbmlweb/OnlineResources/frsdfam/Index.cfm. Accessed 12 May 2010

  • Lee JE, Chown SL (2009a) Breaching the dispersal barrier to invasion: quantification and management. Ecol Appl 19:1944–1959. doi:10.1890/08-2157.1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee JE, Chown SL (2009b) Quantifying the propagule load associated with the construction of an Antarctic research station. Antarct Sci 21:471–475. doi:10.1017/S0954102009990162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liška J, Soldán Z (2004) Alien vascular plants recorded from the barentsburg and pyramiden settlements, Svalbard. Preslia 76:279–290

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockwood JL, Cassey P, Blackburn T (2005) The role of propagule pressure in explaining species invasions. Trends Ecol Evol 20:223–228

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lockwood JL, Hoopes MF, Marchetti MP (2007) Invasion ecology. Blackwell, Malden, USA, pp 59–76

  • McCullough DG, Work TT, Cavey JF, Liebhold AM, Marshall D (2006) Interceptions at nonindigenous plant pests at US ports of entry and border crossings over a 17-year period. Biol Invasions 8:611–630

    Google Scholar 

  • McNeill M, Phillips C, Young S, Shah F, Aalders L, Bell N, Gerard E, Littlejohn R (2011) Transportation of nonindigenous species via soil on international aircraft passengers’ footwear. Biol Invasions. doi:10.1007/s10530-011-9964-3

  • Milbau A, Graae BJ, Shevtsova A, Nijs I (2009) Effects of a warmer climate on seed germination in the subarctic. Ann Bot 104:287–296

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Müller E, Cooper EJ, Also IG (2011) Germinability of arctic plants is high in perceived optimal conditions but low in the field. Botany 89:337–348

    Google Scholar 

  • Pickering C, Mount A (2010) Do tourists disperse weed seed? a global review of unintentional human-mediated terrestrial seed dispersal on clothing, vehicles and horses. J Sustain Tour 18:239–256. doi:10.1080/09669580903406613

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell RH (1968) Harmful plant species entering New Zealand 1963–1967. NZ J Bot 6:396–401

    Google Scholar 

  • Puth LM, Post DM (2005) Studying invasion: have we missed the boat? Ecol Lett 8:715–721

    Google Scholar 

  • Pyšek P (1998) Is there a taxonomic pattern to plant invasions? Oikos 82:282–294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R Development Core Team (2008) R 2.7.2. A language and environment. Vienna, Austria. Available from http://cran.r-project.org

  • Rowntree JK, Cowan RS, Leggett M, Ramsay MM, Fay MF (2010) Which moss is which? Identification of the threatened moss Orthodontium gracile using molecular and morphological techniques. Conserv Genet 11:1033–1042

    Google Scholar 

  • SCAR (Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research) (2010) Preliminary results from the International Polar Year Program: Aliens in Antarctica. Working paper 4 presented to the Committee on Environmental Protection. Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting XXXIII, Punta del Este, Uruguay

  • Scherrer D, Körner C (2010) Infra-red thermometry of alpine landscapes challenges climatic warming projections. Global Change Biol 16:2602–2613

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt W (1989) Plant dispersal by motor cars. Vegetatio 80:147–152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shevtsova A, Graae BJ, Jochum T, Milbau A, Kockelbergh F, Beyens L, Nijs I (2009) Critical periods for impact of climate warming on early seedling establishment in subarctic tundra. Global Change Biol 15:2662–2680

    Google Scholar 

  • Sørensen T (1941) Temperature relations and phenology of the northeast greenland flowering plants. Commission for Scientific Research in Greenland, Copenhagen

  • Statistics Greenland (2009) Flight passenger statistics. Department of Finances, Greenland. http://www.stat.gl/Statistik/Turisme/tabid/99/language/en-US/Default.aspx. Accessed 19 Jan 2010

  • Thompson K, Bakker JP, Bekker RM (1997) The soil seed banks of north west Europe: methodology, density and longevity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Trudgill DL, Squire GR, Thompson K (2000) A thermal time basis for comparing the germination requirements of some British herbaceous plants. New Phytol 145:107–114

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walker DA, Raynolds MK, Daniels FJA, Einarsson E, Elvebakk A, Gould WA, Katenin AE, Kholod SS, Markon CJ, Melnikov ES, Moskalenko NG, Talbot SS, Yurtsev BA (2005) The circumpolar arctic vegetation map. J Veg Sci 16:267–282

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whinam J, Chilcott N, Bergstrom DM (2005) Subantarctic hitchhikers: expeditioners as vectors for the introduction of alien organisms. Biol Conserv 121:207–219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wichmann MC, Alexander MJ, Soons MB, Galsworthy S, Dunne L, Gould R, Fairfax C, Niggemann M, Hails RS, Bullock JM (2009) Human-mediated dispersal of seeds over long distances. Proc Roy Soc Lond B 276:523–532. doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.1131

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson M (1996) Biol invasions. Chapman & Hall, London, pp 28–52

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank the many people who assisted in footwear sampling at the Svalbard airport, and the 259 participants who kindly gave up their shoes for cleaning after arrival. We would also like to thank the staff at the Svalbard Airport for allowing us to conduct the study on airport premises. Financial assistance for this project was received from the Svalbard Environmental Protection Fund. This project is closely aligned with the IPY Aliens in Antarctica Project. Finally, we wish to extend our thanks to three anonymous reviewers for their comments on the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The University Centre in Svalbard (UNIS), PO Box 156, 9171, Longyearbyen, Norway

    Chris Ware, Eike Müller & Inger Greve Alsos

  2. Australian Antarctic Division, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, 203 Channel Highway, Kingston, 7050, Australia

    Dana M. Bergstrom

  3. Tromsø University Museum, 9037, Tromsø, Norway

    Inger Greve Alsos

Authors
  1. Chris Ware
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Dana M. Bergstrom
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Eike Müller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Inger Greve Alsos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Inger Greve Alsos.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ware, C., Bergstrom, D.M., Müller, E. et al. Humans introduce viable seeds to the Arctic on footwear. Biol Invasions 14, 567–577 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-011-0098-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-011-0098-4

Keywords

  • Alien
  • Non-indigenous
  • Dispersal
  • Germination
  • Human-mediated dispersal
  • Propagule pressure