Abstract
This review outlines the current status and recent developments in the technology of microalgal culturing in enclosed photobioreactors. Light distribution and mixing are the primary variables that affect productivities of photoautotrophic cultures and have strong impacts on photobioreactor designs. Process monitoring and control, physiological engineering, and heterotrophic microalgae are additional aspects of microalgal culturing, which have gained considerable attention in recent years.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Akkerman I, Janssen M, Rocha J, Wijffels HR (2002) Photobiological hydrogen production: photochemical efficiency and bioreactor design. Int J Hydrogen Energy 27:1195–1208
Barbosa MJ, Albrecht M, Wijffels RH (2003a) Hydrodynamic stress and lethal events in sparged microalgae cultures. Biotechnol Bioeng 83:112–120
Barbosa MJ, Janssen M, Ham N, Tramper J, Wijffels RH (2003b) Microalgae cultivation in air-lift reactors: Modelling biomass yield and growth rate as a function of mixing frequency. Biotechnol Bioeng 82:170–179
Berberoglu H, Yin J, Pilon L (2007) Light transfer in bubble sparged photobioreactors for H2 production and CO2 mitigation. Int J Hydrogen Energy 32:2273–2285
Bosma R, van Zessen E, Reith JH, Tramper J, Wijffels RH (2007) Prediction of volumetric productivity of an outdoor photobioreactor. Biotechnol Bioeng 97:1108–1120
Camacho Rubio F, Camacho FG, Sevilla JMF, Chisti Y, Molina Grima E (2003) A mechanistic model of photosynthesis in microalgae. Biotechnol Bioeng 81:473–559
Carlozzi P (2000) Hydrodynamic aspects and Arthrospira growth in two outdoor tubular undulating row photobioreactors. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 54:14–22
Carlozzi P, Pushparaj B, Degl’Innocenti A, Capperucci A (2006) Growth characteristics of Rhodopseudomonas palustris cultured outdoors, in an underwater tubular photobioreactor, and investigation of photosynthetic efficiency. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 73:789–795
Carvalho AP, Meireles LA, Malcata FX (2006) Microalgal reactors: A review of enclosed system designs and performances. Biotechnol Prog 22:1490–1506
Chisti Y (2006) Microalgae as sustainable cell factories. Environ Eng Man J 5:261–274
Chisti Y (2007) Biodiesel from microalgae. Biotechnol Adv 25:294–306
Chisti Y (2008) Biodiesel from microalgae beats bioethanol. Trends Biotechnol 26:126–131
Choi S-L, Suh IS, Lee C-G (2003) Lumostatic operation of bubble column photobioreactors for Haematococcus pluvialis cultures using a specific light uptake rate as control parameter. Enzyme Microb Technol 33:403–409
Cogne G, Lasseur Ch, Cornet J-F, Dussap C-G, Gros J-B (2001) Growth monitoring of a photosynthetic micro-organism (Spirulina platensis) by pressure measurement. Biotechnol Lett 23:1309–1314
Converti A, Lodi A, Del Borghi A, Solisio C (2006) Cultivation of Spirulina platensis in a combined airlift-tubular system. Biochem Eng J 32:13–18
Csögör Z, Herrenbauer M, Schmidt K, Posten C (2001) Light distribution in a novel photobioreactor—modelling for optimization. J Appl Phycol 13:325–333
Degen J, Uebele A, Retze A, Scmid-Staiger U, Trösch W (2001) A novel photobioreactor with baffles for improved light utilization through the flashing light effect. J Biotechnol 92:89–94
de Morais MG, Costa JAV (2007) Biofixation if carbon dioxide by Spirulina sp. and Scenedesmus obliquus cultivated in a three-stage serial tubular photobioreactor. J Biotechnol 129:439–445
de Swaaf ME, Pronk JC, Sijtsma L (2003a) Fed-batch cultivation of the docosahexaenoic acid producing marine alga Crypthecodinium cohnii on ethanol. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 61:40–43
de Swaaf ME, Sijtsma L, Pronk JC (2003b) High-cell-density fed-batch cultivation of the docosahexaenoic acid producing marine alga Crypthecodinium cohnii. Biotechnol Bioeng 81:666–672
Doucha J, Lívanský K (2006) Productivity, CO2/O2 exchange and hydraulics in outdoor open high density microalgal (Chlorella sp.) photobioreactors operated in a Middle and Southern European climate. J Appl Phycol 18:811–826
Doucha J, Straka F, Lívanský K (2005) Utilization of flue gas for cultivation of microalgae (Chlorella sp.) in an outdoor open thin-layer photobioreactor. J Appl Phycol 17:403–412
Eriksen NT, Geest T, Iversen JJL (1996) Phototrophic growth in the Lumostat: a photo-bioreactor with on-line optimization of light intensity. J Appl Phycol 8:345–352
Eriksen NT, Poulsen BR, Iversen JJL (1998) Dual sparging photobioreactor for continuous production of microalgae. J Appl Phycol 10:377–382
Eriksen NT, Riisgård FK, Gunther W, Iversen JJL (2007) On-line estimation of O2 production, CO2 uptake, and growth kinetics of microalgal cultures in a gas tight photobioreactor. J Appl Phycol 19:161–174
Fernandéz FGA, Hall DO, Guerrero EC, Rao KK, Molina Grima E (2003) Outdoor production of Phaeodactylum tricornutum biomass in a helical reactor. J Biotechnol 103:137–152
Flech-Schneider P, Lehr F, Posten C (2007) Modelling of growth and product formation of Porphyridium purpureum. J Biotechnol 132:134–141
Jung S-K, Lee SB (2006) In situ monitoring of cell concentration in a photobioreactor using image analysis: Comparison of uniform light distribution model and artificial neural networks. Biotechnol Prog 22:1443–1450
García Camacho F, Gómez AC, Fernández FGA, Sevilla JF, Molina Grima E (1999) Use of concentric-tube airlift photobioreactors for microalgal outdoor mass culture. Enzyme Microb Technol 24:164–172
García Camacho F, Molina Grima E, Mirón AS, Pascual VG, Chisti Y (2001) Carboxymethyl cellulose protects algal cells against hydrodynamic stress. Enzyme Microb Technol 29:602–610
Graverholt OS, Eriksen NT (2007) Heterotrophic high cell-density fed-batch and continuous flow cultures of Galdieria sulphuraria and production of phycocyanin. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 77:69–75
Grobbelaar JU (2000) Physiological and technological considerations for optimising mass algal cultures. J Appl Phycol 12:201–206
Hai T, Ahlers H, Gorenflo V, Steinbüchel A (2000) Axenic cultivation of anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria, cyanobacteria, and microalgae in a new closed tubular glass photobioreactor. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 53:383–389
Hall DO, Fernandéz FGA, Guerrero EC, Rao KK, Molina Grima E (2003) Outdoor helical tubular photobioreactors for microalgal production: Modelling of fluid-dynamics and mass transfer and assessment of biomass productivity. Biotechnol Bioeng 82:62–73
Hu Q, Kurano N, Kawachi M, Iwasaki I, Miyachi A (1998) Ultrahigh-cell-density culture of a marine alga Chlorococcum littorale in a flat-plate photobioreactor. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 49:655–662
Janssen M, de Bresser L, Baijens T, Tramper J, Mur LR, Snel JFH, Wijffels RH (2000a) Scale-up of photobioreactors: effects of mixing-induced light/dark cycles. J Appl Phycol 12:225–237
Janssen M, Jannsen M, de Winther M, Tramper J, Mur LR, Snel J, Wijffels RH (2000b) Efficiency of light utilization of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii under medium light/dark cycles. J Biotechnol 78:123–137
Janssen M, Slenders P, Tramper J, Mur LR, Wijffels RH (2001) Photosynthetic efficiency of Dunaliella tertiolecta under short light/dark cycles. Enzyme Microb Technol 29:298–305
Janssen M, Tramper J, Mur LR, Wijfells RH (2002) Enclosed outdoor photobioreactors: Light regime, photosynthetic efficiency, scale-up, and future prospects. Biotechnol Bioeng 81:193–210
Janssen M, Wijffels R, von Stockar U (2007) Biocalorimetric monitoring of photoautotrophic batch cultures. Thermocim Acta 458:54–64
Kaewpintong K, Shotipruk A, Powtongsook S, Pavasant P (2007) Photoautotrophic high-density cultivation of vegetative cells of Haematococcus pluvialis in airlift bioreactor. Biores Technol 98:288–295
Katsuda T, Arimoto T, Igarashi K, Azuma M, Kato J, Takakuwa S, Ooshima H (2000) Light intensity distribution in the illuminated cylindrical photo-bioreactor and its application to hydrogen production by Rhodobacter capsulatus. Biochem Eng J 5:157–164
Krichnavaruk S, Powtongsook S, Pavasant P (2007) Enhancd productivity of Chaetoceros calcitrans in airlift photobioreactors. Biores Technol 98:2123–2130
Kruse O, Rupprecht J, Bader K-P, Thomas-Hall S, Schenk PM, Finazzi G, Hankamer B (2005) Improved photobiological H2 production in engineered green algal cells. J Biol Chem 280:34170–34177
Lee H-S, Seo M-W, Kim Z-H, Lee C-G (2006) Determining the best specific light uptake rates for the lumostatic cultures of bubble column photobioreactors. Enzyme Microb Technol 39:447–452
León-Bañares R, Gonzáles-Ballester D, Galván A, Fernández E (2004) Transgenic microalgae as green cell-factories. Trends Biotechnol 22:45–52
Li J, Shou N, Su WW (2003) Online estimation of stirred-tank microalgal photobioreactor cultures based on dissolved oxygen measurements. Biochem Eng J 14:51–65
Lou H-P, Al-Dahhan MH (2004) Analysing and modelling of photobioreactors by combining first principles of physiology and hydrodynamics. Biotechnol Bioeng 85:382–393
Lou H-P, Kemoun A, Al-Dahhan MH, Sevilla JMF, Sánchez JLG, Camacho FG, Molina Grima E (2003) Analysis of photobioreactors for culturing high-value microalgae and cyanobacteria via an advanced diagnostic technique: CARPT. Chem Eng Sci 58:2519–1527
Ma N, Chalmers JJ, Auniņš JG, Zhou W, Xie L (2004) Quantitative studies of cell-bubble interactions and cell damage at different Pluronic F-68 and cell concentrations. Biotechnol Prog 20:1183–1191
Marxen K, Vanselow KH, Lippemeier S, Hintze R, Ruser A, Hansen U-P (2005) A photobioreactor system for computer controlled cultivation of microalgae. J Appl Phycol 17:535–549
Melis A (1999) photosystem-II damage and repair cycle in chloroplasts: what modulates the rate of photodamage in vivo? Trends Plant Sci 4:130–135
Merchuk JC, Wu X (2003) Modelling of photobioreactors: application to bubble column simulation. J Appl Phycol 15:163–169
Merchuk JC, Gluz M, Mukmenev I (2000) Comparison of photobioreactors for cultivation of the red microalga Porphyridium sp. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 75:1119–1126
Mirón AS, Gómez AC, Camacho FG, Molina Grima E, Chisti Y (1999) Comparative evaluation of compact photobioreactors for large-scale monoculture of microalgae. J Biotechnol 70:249–270
Mirón AS, García M-CC, Camcho FG, Molina Grima E, Chisti Y (2002) Growth and biochemical characterization of microalgal biomass produced in bubble column and airlift photobioreactors: studies in fed-batch culture. Enzyme Microb Technol 31:1015–1023
Molina E, Fernández J, Acién FG, Chisti Y (2001) Tubular photobioreactor design for algal cultures. J Biotechnol 92:113–131
Molina Grima E, Belarbi E-H, Fernández FGA, Medina AR, Chisti Y (2003) Recovery of microalgal biomass and metabolites: process options and economics. Biotechnol Adv 20:491–515
Muller-Feuga A, Pruvost J, Le Guédes R, Le Déan L, Legentilhomme P, Legrand J (2003) Swirling flow implementation in a photobioreactor for batch and continuous cultures of Porphyridium cruentum. Biotechnol Bioeng 84:544–551
Mussgnug JH, Thomas-Hall S, Rupprecht J, Foo A, Klassen V, McDowall A, Schenk PM, Kruse O, Hankamer B (2007) Engineering photosynthetic light capture: impacts on improved solar energy to biomass conversion. Plant Biotechnol J 5:802–814
Nedbal L, Tichý V, Xiong F, Grobbekaar JU (1996) Microscopic green algae and cyanobacteria in high-frequency intermittent light. J Appl Phycol 8:325–333
Ogbonna JC, Tanaka H (2000) Light requirement and photosynthetic cell cultivation – Developments of processes for efficient light utilization in photobioreactors. J Appl Phycol 12:207–218
Ogbonna JC, Tomiyama S, Tanaka H (1998) Heterotrophic cultivation of Euglena gracilis Z for efficient production of α-tocopherol. J Appl Phycol 10:67–74
Olaizola M (2003) Commercial development of microalgal biotechnology: from the test tube to the marketplace. Biomol Eng 20:459–466
Perner-Nochta I, Posten C (2007) Simulations of light intensity variation in photobioreactors. J Biotechnol 131:276–285
Perner-Nochta I, Lucumi A, Posten C (2007) Photoautotrophic cell and tissue culture in a tubular photobioreactor. Eng Life Sci 7:127–135
Pottier L, Pruvost J, Deremetz J, Cornet J-F, Legrand J, Dussap CG (2005) A fully predictive model for one-dimensional light attenuation by Chlamydomonas reinhardtii in a torus photobioreactor. Biotechnol Bioeng 91:569–582
Poulsen BR, Iversen JJL (1999) Membrane sparger in bubble column, airlift, and combined membrane-ring sparger bioreactors. Biotechnol Bioeng 64:452–458
Pulz O (2001) Photobioreactors: production systems for phototrophic microorganisms. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 57:287–293
Richmond A (2000) Microalgal biotechnology at the turn of the millennium: A personal view. J Appl Phycol 12:441–451
Richmond A, Cheng-Wu Z, Zarmi Y (2003) Efficient use of strong light for high photosynthetic productivity: interrelationships between the optical path, the optimal population density and cell-growth inhibition. Biomol Eng 20:229–239
Sato T, Usui S, Tsuchiya Y, Kondo Y (2006) Invention of outdoor closed type photobioreactor for microalgae. Energy Conversion Manage 47:791–799
Scragg AH, Illman AM, Carden A, Shales SW (2002) Growth of microalgae with increased calorific values in a tubular bioreactor. Biomass Bioeng 23:67–73
Schmidt RA, Wiebe MG, Eriksen NT (2005) Heterotrophic high cell-density fed-batch cultures of the phycocyanin producing red alga Galdieria sulphuraria. Biotechnol Bioeng 90:77–84
Sloth JK, Wiebe MG, Eriksen NT (2006) Accumulation of phycocyanin in heterotrophic and mixotrophic cultures of the acidophilic red alga Galdieria sulphuraria. Enzyme Microb Technol 38:168–175
Sobszuk TM, Camacho FG, Molina Grima E, Chisti Y (2006) Effects of agitation on the microalgae Phaeodactylum triconutum and Porphyridium cruentum. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 28:243–250
Spolaore P, Joannis-Cassan C, Duran E, Isambert A (2006) Commercial applications of microalgae. J Biosci Bioeng 101:87–96
Su W, Li J, Xu N-S (2003) State and parameter estimation of microalgal photobioreactor cultures based on local irradiance measurements. J Biotechnol 105:165–178
Suh IS, Lee SB (2001) Cultivation of a cyanobacterium in an internally radiating air-lift photobioreactor. J Appl Phycol 13:381–388
Suh IS, Lee SB (2003) A light distribution model for an internally radiating photobioreactor. Biotechnol Bioeng 82:180–189
Travieso L, Hall DO, Rao KK, Benítez F, Sánchez E, Borja R (2001) A helical tubular photobioreactor producing Spirulina in a semicontinuous mode. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation 47:151–155
Ugwu CU, Ogbonna JC, Tanaka H (2005a) Characterization of light utilisation and biomass yields of Chlorella sorokiniana in inclined outdoor tubular photobioreactors equipped with static mixers. Process Biochem 40:3406–3411
Ugwu CU, Ogbonna JC, Tanaka H (2005b) Light/dark cyclic movement of algal culture (Synechocystis aquatilis) in outdoor inclined tubular photobioreactor equipped with static mixers for efficient production of biomass. Biotechnol Lett 27:75–78
Vega-Estrada J, Montes-Horcasitas MC, Domínguez-Bocanegra AR, Cañizares-Villanueva RO (2005) Haematococcus pluvialis cultivation in split-cylinder internal-loop airlift photobioreactor under aeration conditions avoiding cell damage. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 68:31–35
Vunjak-Novakovic G, Kim Y, Wu X, Berzin I, Merchhuk JC (2005) Air-lift bioreactors for algal growth on flue gas: mathematical modelling and pilot-plant studies. Ind Eng Chem Res 44:6154–6163
Wen Z-Y, Chen F (2001) A perfusion-cell bleeding culture strategy for enhancing the productivity of eicosapentanoic acid by Nitzchia laevis. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 57:316–322
Wen Z-Y, Chen F (2003) Heterotrophic production of eicosapentaenoic acid by microalgae. Biotechnol Adv 21:273–294
Wu X, Merchuk JC (2004) Simulation of algae growth in a bench scale internal loop airlift reactor. Chem Eng Sci 59:2899–2912
Wu Z-Y, Shi C-L, Shi X-M (2007) Modelling of lutein production by heterotrophic Chlorella in batch and fed-batch cultures. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 23:1233–1238
Xiong W, Li X, Xiang J, Wu Q (2008) High-density fermentation of microalga Chlorella protothecoides in bioreactor for microbio-diesel production. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 78:29–36
Yang C, Hua Q, Shimuzu K (2000) Energetics and carbon metabolism during growth of microalgal cells under photoautotrophic, mixotrophic and cyclic light-autotrophic/dark-heterotrophic conditions. Biochem Eng J 6:87–102
Yoshimoto N, Sato T, Kondo Y (2005) Dynamic discrete model of flashing light in photosynthesis of microalgae. J Appl Phycol 17:207–214
Zaslavskaia LA, Lippmeier JC, Shih C, Erhardt D, Grosman AR, Apt KE (2001) Trophic conversion of an obligate photoautotrophic organism through metabolic engineering. Science 292:2073–2075
Zijffers J-WF, Jannsen M, Tramper J, Wijffels RH (2008) Design process of an area-efficient photobioreactor. Mar Biotechnol doi:10.1007/s10126-9077-2
Zitelli GC, Rodolfi L, Biondi N, Tredici MR (2006) Productivity and photosynthetic efficiency of outdoor cultures of Tetraselmis suecica in annular columns. Aquaculture 261:932–943
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Eriksen, N.T. The technology of microalgal culturing. Biotechnol Lett 30, 1525–1536 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10529-008-9740-3
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10529-008-9740-3