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Genes, Evolution and Intelligence

Behavior Genetics volume 44, pages 549–577 (2014)Cite this article

Abstract

I argue that the g factor meets the fundamental criteria of a scientific construct more fully than any other conception of intelligence. I briefly discuss the evidence regarding the relationship of brain size to intelligence. A review of a large body of evidence demonstrates that there is a g factor in a wide range of species and that, in the species studied, it relates to brain size and is heritable. These findings suggest that many species have evolved a general-purpose mechanism (a general biological intelligence) for dealing with the environments in which they evolved. In spite of numerous studies with considerable statistical power, we know of very few genes that influence g and the effects are very small. Nevertheless, g appears to be highly polygenic. Given the complexity of the human brain, it is not surprising that that one of its primary faculties—intelligence—is best explained by the near infinitesimal model of quantitative genetics.

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Fig. 1
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Notes

  1. An interesting case of increase in the size of one part of the brain over other parts is the increase in cerebellum size with bower complexity in bowerbirds (Day et al. 2005). Sexual selection has let to an increase in the skills necessary to build intricate and precisely decorated bowers, but it is only reflected in an increase in cerebellum size. Such birds do have larger whole brains relative to other birds that live in similar habitats but do not build bowers. This appears to be an androgen triggered process.

  2. According to Crow, “All that is required is that there be a substantial supply of rare alleles, many of them perhaps in a mutation–selection balance that was reached before the current selection program started” (p. 1242). James Lee (Personal Communication, 2013) has provided me with the following formulation based on Crow’s argument. “Even if the mean of a trait has been consistently increasing in one direction over time, the additive genetic variance does not necessarily decline because there are loci where the "plus" allele was initially rare but then increased in frequency. The contribution of such loci to the additive genetic variance increases rather than decreases, until the plus allele passes the frequency of 0.50. And unless all possible ways to increase the value of the trait have been exhausted, there will always be new mutations entering the population to replenish the variance lost as a result of plus alleles going from 0.50 eventually to fixation. The equilibrium additive genetic variance depends only on the effective population size, and given a size of 10,000 (good enough for humans) a heritability of 0.60 or so is not at all anomalous.” Brem and Kruglyak (2005) provide empirical evidence for the existence of the necessary alleles for a large and unbiased sample of quantitative traits in yeast that are highly heritable (>69 %). Rockman (2012) discusses the general issue within a larger historical context.

  3. Keith et al. (2008) have demonstrated that it is important to use a latent trait model to explore questions regarding sex differences as methodological differences (composite scores vs. g scores, different methods of dealing with missing data, etc.) strongly influence the findings.

  4. For readers who may not be familiar with Gould’s book I should explain my reason for choosing it as a foil. Gould was without doubt among the most influential scientific intellectuals of the 20th century, and he shaped the thinking of huge numbers of people not trained in science (Shermer 2002) as well as a large number of those trained in science. An example of an important scientist/administrator/textbook author influenced by Gould would be Richard Atkinson. He was Director of the National Science Foundation and President of the University of California System and author of a widely used introductory psychology textbook (Atkinson et al. 2000). When asked about IQ testing he “frequently referred then to Stephen Jay Gould’s book The Mismeasure of Man, published in 1981; it is a remarkable piece of scholarship that documented the widespread misuse of IQ tests (Atkinson 2005, p. 16). During Bouchard’s career he was repeatedly confronted by people who cited Gould in opposition to his work with twins reared apart. Indeed Chapter six of The Mismeasure of Man begins as follows:

    “If I had any desire to lead a life of indolent ease, I would wish to be an identical twin, separated at birth from my brother and raised in a different social class. We could hire ourselves out to a host of social scientists and practically name our fee. For we would be exceedingly rare representatives of the only really adequate natural experiment for separating genetic from environmental effects in humans–genetically identical individuals raised in disparate environments.”

    Bouchard’s study of monozygotic twins reared apart had been running for 2 years when this was published and Gould was well aware of the study. He certainly never asked Bouchard what the twins were paid, it was a pittance (Segal 2012). Bouchard finds the claim of venal motivation on the part of twins insulting to say the least.

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    Thomas J. Bouchard Jr.

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    Thomas J. Bouchard Jr.

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Bouchard, T.J. Genes, Evolution and Intelligence. Behav Genet 44, 549–577 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-014-9646-x

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Keywords

  • Intelligence
  • Heritability
  • Evolution
  • g Factor
  • Brain