Abstract
This article presents a comprehensive study of dynamic soil properties [namely, initial shear modulus-Gmax; normalized shear modulus reduction (G/Gmax); and damping ratio (D) variation curves] and pore water pressure parameters of a river bed sand (Brahmaputra sand), sampled from a highly active seismic region (northeast India). Two independent high quality apparatus (resonant column-RC and cyclic triaxial-CTX) are adopted in the study. Resonant column apparatus was used to obtain the small strain properties (up to 0.1%) while CTX equipment was adopted to obtain the high strain properties along with the pore water pressure parameters. The results obtained from both the equipment are combined to provide a comprehensive data of dynamic soil properties over wide range of strains. A modified hyperbolic formulation was suggested for efficient simulation of G/Gmax and D variations with shear strain. Based on the CTX results, a pore water pressure generation model is presented. Furthermore, a nonlinear effective stress ground response study incorporating the pore water pressure generation, is performed using the recorded earthquake motions of varying peak bed rock acceleration (PBRA) in the region, to demonstrate the applicability of proposed dynamic soil properties and pore pressure parameters. High amplification for low PBRA ground motions (< 0.10 g) was observed and attenuation of seismic waves was witnessed beyond a PBRA of 0.10 g near the surficial stratum due to the induced high strains and the resulting high hysteretic damping of the soil. Also, increased excess pore pressure generation with increased PBRA of the input motion was observed and the considered soil stratum is expected to liquefy beyond a PBRA of 0.1 g. The established properties can be handy to the design engineers during seismic design of structures in the northeast Indian region.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
ASTM D2487 (2006) Standard practice for classification of soils for engineering purposes (unified soil classification system). ASTM Stand Guid D5521–5:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1520/D2487-11
ASTM D3999 (2003) Standard test methods for the determination of the modulus and damping properties of soils using the cyclic triaxial apparatus. Am Soc Test Mater 91:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1520/D3999-11E01.1.6
ASTM D4015 (2014) Standard test methods for modulus and damping of soils by resonant-column 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1520/d4015-07.1
ASTM D5311 (1996) Standard test method for load controlled cyclic triaxial strength of soil. ASTM D5311(92):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1520/D5311
Ayothiraman R, Raghu Kanth STG, Sreelatha S (2012) Evaluation of liquefaction potential of Guwahati: Gateway city to Northeastern India. Nat Hazards 63:449–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-012-0158-9
Bai L (2011) Preloading effects on dynamic sand behavior by resonant column tests. Doctoral thesis, Technischen Universität Berlin
Basu D, Dey A, Kumar SS (2017) One-dimensional effective stress non-Masing nonlinear ground response analysis of IIT Guwahati. Int J Geotech Earthq Eng 8:1–27
Bommer JJ, Acevedo AB (2004) The use of real earthquake accelerograms as input to dynamic analysis. J Earthq Eng 8(spec01):43–91
Carlton BD (2014) An improved description of the seismic response of sites with high plasticity soils, organic clays, and deep soft soil deposits. University of California, Berkeley
Chattaraj R, Sengupta A (2016) Liquefaction potential and strain dependent dynamic properties of Kasai River sand. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 90:467–475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2016.07.023
Chatterjee K, Choudhury D (2016) Influences of local soil conditions for ground response in Kolkata city during earthquakes. Proc Natl Acad Sci India Sect A Phys Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40010-016-0265-1
Chehat A, Hussien MN, Abdelazize M, Chekired M (2018) Stiffness-and damping-strain curves of sensitive Champlain clays through experimental and analytical approaches. Can Geotech J. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2017-0732
Chiaradonna A, Tropeano G, Onofrio A, Silvestri F, Park D (2015) Application of a simplified model for the prediction of pore pressure build-up in sandy soils subjected to seismic loading. In: 6th international conference on earthquake geotechnical engineering, Christchurch
Chiaradonna A, Tropeano G, d’Onofrio A, Silvestri F (2018) Development of a simplified model for pore water pressure build-up induced by cyclic loading. Bull Earthq Eng. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-018-0354-4
Chung R, Yokel F, Drnevich V (1984) Evaluation of dynamic properties of sands by resonant column testing. Geotech Test J 7:60. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10594J
Dammala PK, Krishna AM, Bhattacharya S (2015) Cyclic threshold shear strains in cohesionless soils based on stiffness degradation. In: Indian geotechnical conference, Pune, Paper ID: 291
Dammala PK, Krishna AM, Bhattacharya S, Aingaran S (2016) Cyclic repones of cohesionless soil using cyclic simple shear testing. In: 6th international conference on recent advances in geotechnical earthquake engineering. ICRAGEE, pp 1–10
Dammala PK, Bhattacharya S, Krishna AM, Kumar SS, Dasgupta K (2017a) Scenario based seismic re-qualification of caisson supported major bridges? a case study of Saraighat Bridge. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 100:270–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2017.06.005
Dammala PK, Krishna AM, Bhattacharya S, Rouholamin M, Nikitas G (2017b) Dynamic soil properties for seismic ground response studies in Northeastern India. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 100:357–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2017.06.003
Darendeli M (2001) Development of a new family of normalized modulus reduction and material damping. Doctoral thesis, University of Texas
Desai SS, Choudhury D (2012) Site-specific seismic ground response study for nuclear power plants and ports in Mumbai. Nat Hazards Rev 13:205–220. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996
Dobry R, Pierce W, Dyvik R, Thomas GE, Ladd R (1985) Pore pressure model for cyclic straining of sand. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy
Drnevich VP, Hall JR, Richart Jr F (1967) Large amplitude vibration effects on the shear modulus of sand. Michigan University Ann Arbor
El Mohtar CS, Drnevich VP, Santagata M, Bobet A (2013) Combined resonant column and cyclic triaxial tests for measuring undrained shear modulus reduction of sand with plastic fines. Geotech Test J 36:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20120129
Esteva L (1988) The Mexico earthquake of September 19, 1985-consequences, lessons, and impact on research and practise. Earthq Spectra 4:413–426
Finn WDL, Bhatia SK (1982) Prediction of seismic pore water pressures. In: 10th international conference in soil mechanics and foundations, Stockholm, pp 201–206
Govindaraju L (2005) Liquefaction and dynamic properties of sandy soils. Doctoral thesis, IISc Bangalore
Guha S, Bhattacharya U (1984) Studies on prediction of seismicity in northeastern India. In: 8th world conference on earthquake engineering, San Francisco
Hardin BO (1978) The nature of stress-strain behavior for soils. In: From Volume I of Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics--Proceedings of the ASCE Geotechnical Engineering Division Specialty Conference, June 19–21, 1978, Pasadena, California. Sponsored by Geotechnical Engineering Division of ASCE
Hardin BO, Drnevich VP (1972) Shear modulus and damping in soils: design equations and curves. J Soil Mech Found Div SM7:667–692
Hardin BO, Richart FE (1963) Elastic wave velocities in Granular soils. J Soil Mech Found Div 89:33–65
Hashash YMA, Musgrouve MI, Harmon JA, Groholski DR, Phillips CA, Park D (2016) DEEPSOIL 6.1, user manual. Board of Trustees of University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana
Heshmati AA, Shahnazari H, Sarbaz H (2015) The cyclic threshold shear strains in very dense clean sand. Eur J Environ Civ Eng 19:884–899. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2014.985848
Hsu C-C, Vucetic M (2004) Volumetric threshold shear strain for cyclic settlement. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 130:58–70. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2004)130:1(58)
Idriss IM, Boulanger RW (2006) Semi-empirical procedures for evaluating liquefaction potential during earthquakes. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 26:115–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2004.11.023
Imai T, Tonouchi K (1982) Correlation of N-value with S-wave velocity and shear modulus. In: Proceedings of the 2nd European symposium on penetration testing, Amsterdam, pp 57–72
IS:1893 (2002) Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures. Indian Stand 1–44
Ishibashi I, Zhang X (1993) Unified dynamic shear moduli and damping ratios of sand and clay. Soils Found Jpn Soc Soil Mech Found Eng 33:182–191. https://doi.org/10.1248/cpb.37.3229
Ivsic T (2006) A model for presentation of seismic pore water pressures. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 26:191–199
Kayal JR, De R (1991) Microseismicity and tectonics in Northeast India. Bull Seismol Soc Am 81:131–138
Khattri KN (1999) Probabilities of occurrence of great earthquakes in the Himalaya. Proc Indian Acad Sci Earth Planet Sci 108:87–92
Kiku H, Yoshida N (2000) Dynamic deformation property tests at large strains. World Conf Earthq Eng 12:1–7
Kokusho T (1980) Cyclic triaxial test of dynamic soil properties for wide strain range. Soils Found 20:45–59
Kramer SL (1996) Geotechnical earthquake engineering, 1st edn. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River
Kuhlemeyer R, Lysmer J (1973) Finite element method accuracy for wave propagation problems. J Soil Mech Found Div 99:421–427
Kumar A, Harinarayan NH, Baro O (2015) High amplification factor for low amplitude ground motion: assessment for Delhi. Disaster Adv 8:1–11
Kumar A, Baro O, Harinarayan NH (2016) Obtaining the surface PGA from site response analyses based on globally recorded ground motions and matching with the codal values. Nat Hazards 81:543–572. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-015-2095-x
Kumar SS, Krishna AM, Dey A (2017) Evaluation of dynamic properties of sandy soil at high cyclic strains. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 99:157–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2017.05.016
Kumar SS, Krishna AM, Dey A (2018) Importance of site-specific dynamic soil properties for seismic ground response studies Importance of site-specific dynamic soil properties for seismic ground response studies. Int J Geotech Earthq Eng 9:1–21. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJGEE.2018010105
Maheshwari BK, Kirar B (2017) Dynamic properties of soils at low strains in Roorkee region using resonant column tests. Int J Geotech Eng 6362:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2017.1365474
Matasovic N, Vucetic M (1994) Cyclic characterization of liquefiable sands. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 119:1805–1822
Matasovic N, Vucetic M (1995) Generalized cyclic-degradation–pore-pressure generation model for clays. J Geotech Eng 121:33–42
Mohanty P, Dutta SC, Bhattacharya S (2017) Proposed mechanism for mid-span failure of pile supported river bridges during seismic liquefaction. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 102:41–45
Newmark NM (1959) A Method of Computation for Structural Dynamics. J Eng Mech Div 85:67‒94
Oldham R (1899) Report of the great earthquake of 12 June 1897. Mem Geol Surv India 29:1–379
Pagliaroli A, Aprile V, Chamlagain D, Lanzo G, Poovarodom N (2018) Assessment of site e ff ects in the Kathmandu valley, Nepal, during the 2015 Mw 7. 8 Gorkha earthquake sequence using 1D and 2D numerical modelling. Eng Geol 239:50–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.03.011
Park D, Hashash YMA (2008) Rate-dependent soil behavior in seismic site response analysis. Can Geotech J 45:454–469. https://doi.org/10.1139/T07-090
Park T, Park D, Ahn JK (2015) Pore pressure model based on accumulated stress. Bull Earthq Eng 13(7):1913–1926
Phillips C, Hashash YMA (2009) Damping formulation for nonlinear 1D site response analyses. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 29:1143–1158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2009.01.004
PHRI Port and Harbour Research Institute (1997) Handbook on liquefaction remediation of reclaimed land, Balkema
Poddar M (1950) The Assam earthquake of 15th August 1950. Indian Miner 4:167–176
Raghu Kanth STG, Dash SK (2010) Evaluation of seismic soil-liquefaction at Guwahati city. Environ Earth Sci 61:355–368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0347-3
Ramirez J, Asce SM, Barrero AR, Chen L, Dashti S, Ghofrani A, Taiebat M, Arduino P (2018) Site response in a layered liquefiable deposit: evaluation of different numerical tools and methodologies with centrifuge experimental results. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 144:1–22. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001947
Romero SM, Rix GJ (2005) Ground motion amplification of soils in the upper Mississippi embayment. Report no. GIT-CEE/GEO-01-1, National Science Foundation Mid America Earthquake Center
Saxena SK, Reddy KR (1989) Dynamic moduli and damping ratios for Monterey No.0 sand by resonant column tests. Soils Found 29:37–51. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.29.2_37
Seed HB, Idriss IM (1970) Soil moduli and damping factors for dynamic response analysis. Report EE 70-10, Earthquake Engineering and Research Center, University of Californina Berkeley
Seed HB, Lee KL (1966) Liquefaction of saturated sands during cyclic loading. J Soil Mech Found Div 92:105–134
Seed HB, Martin PP, Lysmer J (1975) The generation and dissipation of pore water pressures during soil liquefaction. University of California Berkeley, Berkeley
Silvestri F (2001). Looking for objective criteria in the interpretation of laboratory stress–strain tests. Pre-failure deformation characteristics of geometerials. Jamiolkowski, Lancellotta e Lo Presti (eds). Swets and Zeitlinger, Lisse, ISBN 9058090752
Singhai A, Kumar SS, Dey A (2016) Site-specific 1-D nonlinear effective stress GRA with pore water pressure dissipation. In: 6th international conference on recent advances in geotechnical earthquake engineering and soil dynamics, New Delhi, pp 1–11
Sitharam T, Govindaraju L, Srinivasa Murthy B (2004) Evaluation of liquefaction potential and dynamic properties of silty sand using cyclic triaxial testing. Geotech Test J 27:Paper ID GTJ11894
Stokoe KH, Hwang SK, Darendeli M, Lee NJ (1995) Correlation study of nonlinear dynamic soils properties. Westinghouse Savanah River Company, Aiken
Towhata I (2008) Geotechnical earthquake engineering. Springer, Berlin
Vardanega PJ, Bolton MD (2013) Stiffness of clays and silts: normalizing shear modulus and shear strain. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 9:1575–1589. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000887
Vucetic M (1995) Cyclic threshold shear strains in soils. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 120:2208–2228
Vucetic M, Dobry R (1988) Cyclic triaxial strain-controlled testing of liquefiable sands. Adv Triaxial Test Soil Rock. https://doi.org/10.1520/stp29093s
Vucetic M, Dobry R (1991) Effect of soil plasticity on cyclic response. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 117:89–107
Zhang J, Andrus RD, Juang CH (2005) Normalized shear modulus and material damping ratio relationships. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 131:453–464. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2005)131:4(453)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Dammala, P.K., Kumar, S.S., Krishna, A.M. et al. Dynamic soil properties and liquefaction potential of northeast Indian soil for non-linear effective stress analysis. Bull Earthquake Eng 17, 2899–2933 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-019-00592-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-019-00592-6