Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
  • Special Section: The Impact of Youth Violence on Sexual Health of Adolescents from National and International Perspectives
  • Published:

Young Adult Women and Sexual Awareness in the Digital Age: Examining Pathways Linking Online Dating Debut and Mindfulness with Sexual and Mental Health

Archives of Sexual Behavior volume 52, pages 2859–2877 (2023)Cite this article

A Correction to this article was published on 01 October 2023

This article has been updated

Abstract

Sexual awareness is an understudied phenomenon, despite its known effects on mental health. Little is known about the predictors of sexual awareness, including how early sexual debut and early engagement with online dating and hookup apps might impact the development of sexual mindfulness. Given the conceptual overlap between mindfulness and sexual awareness, this study tested a model that hypothesized that general mindfulness and early sexual and online dating debuts may be associated with mental health outcomes and sexual behavior through pathways involving sexual awareness (assertiveness, consciousness, appeal, and monitoring). A sample of 2,379 heterosexually active young adult women completed an online survey. Path models indicated that both early sexual debut (prior to age 15) and early online dating debut (prior to age 18) had significant, positive direct associations with anxiety and depression scores. Early online dating was also associated with condomless sex with casual male partners. However, both early sexual debut and early online dating debut were indirectly linked to greater sexual risk through greater appeal, and to lower sexual risk through sexual assertiveness. Additionally, greater monitoring contributed to more depression for those with an earlier sexual debut. These findings point to potential risks associated with early online dating. They also highlight benefits of studying sexual awareness as a multi-dimensional construct, especially as it helps to clarify divergent findings in the existing literature on the long-term consequences associated with early sexual debut. While some domains were associated with risk (monitoring and appeal), others were indicative of resilience (assertiveness).

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Availability of Data and Material

Data can be made available upon request from the corresponding author.

Code Availability

Code is available upon request from the corresponding author.

Change history

References

  • Agresti, A. (2012). Categorical data analysis. John Wiley & Sons.

  • Britton, W. B. (2019). Can mindfulness be too much of a good thing: The value of a middle way. Current Opinion in Psychology, 28, 159–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.12.011

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, L. M., & Gilligan, C. (1992). Meeting at the crossroads: Women’s psychology and girls’ development. Harvard University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822–848.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burnett-Zeigler, I., Satyshur, M. D., Hong, S., Wisner, K. L., & Moskowitz, J. (2019). Acceptability of a mindfulness intervention for depressive symptoms among African-American women in a community health center: A qualitative study. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 45, 19–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carcedo, R. J., Fernández-Rouco, N., Fernández-Fuertes, A. A., & Martínez-Álvarez, J. L. (2020). Association between sexual satisfaction and depression and anxiety in adolescents and young adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3), 841. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17030841

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Castro, Á., & Barrada, J. R. (2020). Dating apps and their sociodemographic and psychosocial correlates: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(18), 6500. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186500

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chae, J. (2017). Virtual makeover: Selfie-taking and social media use increase selfie-editing frequency through social comparison. Computers in Human Behavior, 66, 370–376.

  • Collins, R. L., Martino, S. C., & Shaw, R. (2011). Influence of new media on adolescent sexual health: Evidence and opportunities. RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/working_papers/WR761.html.

  • Dijkstra, P., & Barelds, D. P. (2011). Examining a model of dispositional mindfulness, body comparison, and body satisfaction. Body Image, 8(4), 419–422.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dir, A. L., Cyders, M. A., Riley, E. N., & Smith, G. T. (2015). Tinder use and associations with problematic alcohol use and sexual hookups among college females. Alcoholism-Clinical and Experimental Research, 39, 553–560.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drouin, M., Miller, D., Wehle, S. M., & Hernandez, E. (2016). Why do people lie online? “Because everyone lies on the internet.” Computers in Human Behavior, 64, 134–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fanslow, J., & Robinson, E. (2004). Violence against women in New Zealand: Prevalence and health consequences. New Zealand Medical Journal, 117, U1173.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galinsky, A. M., & Sonenstein, F. L. (2011). The association between developmental assets and sexual enjoyment among emerging adults. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48(6), 610–615.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ganong, K., & Larson, E. (2011). Intimacy and belonging: The association between sexual activity and depression among older adults. Society and Mental Health, 1(3), 153–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garson, G. D. (2019). Multilevel modeling: Applications in STATA®, IBM® SPSS®, SAS®, R, & HLMTM. Sage Publications.

  • Gillett, R. (2018). Intimate intrusions online: Studying the normalization of abuse in dating apps. Women’s Studies International Forum, 69, 212–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Golden, R. L., Furman, W., & Collibee, C. (2016). The risks and rewards of sexual debut. Developmental Psychology, 52(11), 1913–1925.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Goldenberg, D. (2019). Disconnected connectedness: The paradox of digital dating for gay and bisexual men. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Mental Health, 23(3), 360–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grant, A. M., & Schwartz, B. (2011). Too much of a good thing: The challenge and opportunity of the inverted U. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(1), 61–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hensel, D. J., Fortenberry, J. D., O’Sullivan, L. F., & Orr, D. P. (2011). The developmental association of sexual self-concept with sexual behavior among adolescent women. Journal of Adolescence, 34(4), 675–684.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, J. A., Mullinax, M., Trussell, J., Davidson, J. K., Sr., & Moore, N. B. (2011). Sexual satisfaction and sexual health among university students in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 101(9), 1643–1654.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Holtzhausen, N., Fitzgerald, K., Thakur, I., Ashley, J., Rolfe, M., & Pit, S. W. (2020). Swipe-based dating applications use and its association with mental health outcomes: A cross-sectional study. BMC Psychology, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-020-0373-1

  • Horne, S., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2006). Female sexual subjectivity and well-being: Comparing late adolescents with different sexual experiences. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 2(3), 25–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hurlbert, D. F. (1991). The role of assertiveness in female sexuality: A comparative study between sexually assertive and sexually nonassertive women. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 17(3), 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/00926239108404342

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Introduction to SAS. (2023). UCLA: Statistical Consulting Group. From https://stats.oarc.ucla.edu/mplus/dae/multinomiallogistic-regression/ (accessed Jan 21, 2023)

  • Ingraham, N., Eliason, M. J., Garbers, S., Harbatkin, D., Minnis, A. M., McElroy, J. A., & Haynes, S. G. (2016). Effects of mindfulness interventions on health outcomes in older lesbian/bisexual women. Women’s Health Issues, 26, S53–S62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaakinen, M., Koivula, A., Savolainen, I., Sirola, A., Mikkola, M., Zych, I., Paek, H., & Oksanen, A. (2021). Online dating applications and risk of youth victimization: A lifestyle exposure perspective. Aggressive Behavior, 47(5), 530–543.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. Hyperion.

  • Kastbom, Å. A., Sydsjö, G., Bladh, M., Priebe, G., & Svedin, C. G. (2015). Sexual debut before the age of 14 leads to poorer psychosocial health and risky behaviour in later life. Acta Paediatrica, 104(1), 91–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.12803

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leavitt, C. E., Lefkowitz, E. S., & Waterman, E. A. (2019). The role of sexual mindfulness in sexual wellbeing, relational wellbeing, and self-esteem. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 45(6), 497–509.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leavitt, C. E., Allsop, D. B., Busby, D. M., Driggs, S. M., Johnson, H. M., & Saxey, M. T. (2020). Associations of mindfulness with adolescent outcomes and sexuality. Journal of Adolescence, 81, 73–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li, M. J., DiStefano, A. S., Thing, J. P., Black, D. S., Simpson, K., Unger, J. B., Milam, J., Contreras, R., & Bluthenthal, R. N. (2019). Seeking refuge in the present moment: A qualitatively refined model of dispositional mindfulness, minority stress, and psychosocial health among Latino/a sexual minorities and their families. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 6(4), 408–419. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000338

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Livingston, J. A., Testa, M., & VanZile-Tamsen, C. (2007). The reciprocal relationship between sexual victimization and sexual assertiveness. Violence against Women, 13(3), 298–313. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801206297339

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Magnusson, B. M., Crandall, A., & Evans, K. (2019). Early sexual debut and risky sex in young adults: The role of low self-control. BMC Public Health, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7734-9

  • Mayer, L. S., & McHugh, P. R. (2016). Sexuality and gender: Findings from the biological, psychological, and social sciences. Part two: Sexuality, mental health outcomes, and social stress. The New Atlantis.

  • Ménard, A. D., & Offman, A. (2009). The interrelationships between sexual self-esteem, sexual assertiveness and sexual satisfaction. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 18, 35–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Menkin, J. A., Robles, T. F., Wiley, J. F., & Gonzaga, G. C. (2015). Online dating across the life span: Users’ relationship goals. Psychology and Aging, 30(4), 987–993. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039722

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Morton, H., & Gorzalka, B. B. (2013). Cognitive aspects of sexual functioning: Differences between East Asian-Canadian and Euro-Canadian women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42(8), 1615–1625.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2017). Mplus v.8. Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paterson, L. Q. P., Handy, A. B., & Brotto, L. A. (2017). A pilot study of eight-session mindfulness—based cognitive therapy adapted for women’s sexual interest/arousal disorder. Journal of Sex Research, 54(7), 850–861. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1208800

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pflieger, J. C., Cook, E. C., Niccolai, L. M., & Connell, C. M. (2013). Racial/ethnic differences in patterns of sexual risk behavior and rates of sexually transmitted infections among female young adults. American Journal of Public Health, 103(5), 903–909. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.301005

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, A., Scott, A. J., & Henry, N. (2020). Digital harassment and abuse: Experiences of sexuality and gender minority adults. European Journal of Criminology, 17(2), 199–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prazak, M., Critelli, J. W., Martin, L. A., Miranda, V. S., Purdum, M., & Powers, C. (2012). Mindfulness and its role in physical and psychological health. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 4(1), 91–105.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reed, E., Salazar, M., Behar, A. I., Agah, N., Silverman, J. G., Minnis, A. M., Rusch, M. L. A., & Raj, A. (2019). Cyber sexual harassment: Prevalence and association with substance use, poor mental health, and STI history among sexually active adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescence, 75, 53–62.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rickert, V. I., Neal, W. P., Wiemann, C. M., & Berenson, A. B. (2000). Prevalence and predictors of low sexual assertiveness. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 13(2), 88–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1083-3188(00)00016-4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, H., Clark, A., Sherman, C., Heitzeg, M. M., & Hicks, B. M. (2021). Age, sex, and other demographic trends in sexual behavior in the United States: Initial findings of the sexual behaviors, internet use, and psychological adjustment survey. PLoS ONE, 16(8). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255371

  • Rosenfeld, M. J., & Thomas, R. J. (2012). Searching for a mate: The rise of the Internet as social intermediary. American Sociological Review, 77(4), 523–547.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sareen, J., Afifi, T. O., McMillan, K. A., & Asmundson, G. J. (2011). Relationship between household income and mental disorders: Findings from a population-based longitudinal study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(4), 419–427. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.15

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (2010). Ensuring positiveness of the scaled difference chi-square test statistic. Psychometrika, 75(2), 243–248.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sawyer, A. N., Smith, E. R., & Benotsch, E. G. (2018). Dating application use and sexual risk behavior among young adults. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 15(2), 183–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sayyadi, F., Golmakani, N., Ebrahimi, M., Saki, A., Karimabadi, A., & Ghorbani, F. (2019). Determination of the effect of sexual assertiveness training on sexual health in married women: A randomized clinical trial. Iranian Journal of Nursing and Midwifery Research, 24(4), 274–280. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijnmr.IJNMR_51_17

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, G. K., Tatar, O., Sutton, A., Fisher, W., Naz, A., Perez, S., & Rosberger, Z. (2017). Correlates of Tinder use and risky sexual behaviors in young adults. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 20(12), 727–734.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silverstein, R. G., Brown, A. C. H., Roth, H. D., & Britton, W. B. (2011). Effects of mindfulness training on body awareness to sexual stimuli: Implications for female sexual dysfunction. Psychosomatic Medicine, 73(9), 817–825.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sprecher, S., O’Sullivan, L. F., Drouin, M., Verette-Lindenbaum, J., & Willetts, M. C. (2019). The significance of sexual debut in women’s lives. Current Sexual Health Reports, 11, 265–273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11930-019-00228-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B., & Löwe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: The GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(10), 1092–1097.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spriggs, A. L., & Halpern, C. T. (2008). Sexual debut timing and depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37(9), 1085–1096.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sneed, C. D. (2009). Sexual risk behavior among early initiators of sexual intercourse. AIDS Care, 21(11), 1395–1400.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snell, W. E., Fisher, T. D., & Miller, R. S. (1991). Development of the Sexual Awareness Questionnaire: Components, reliability, and validity. Annals of Sex Research, 4(1), 65–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stoner, S. A., Norris, J., George, W. H., Morrison, D. M., Zawacki, T., Davis, K. C., & Hessler, D. M. (2008). Women’s condom use assertiveness and sexual risk-taking: Effects of alcohol intoxication and adult victimization. Addictive Behaviors, 33(9), 1167–1176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.04.017

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Strubel, J., & Petrie, T. A. (2017). Love me Tinder: Body image and psychosocial functioning among men and women. Body Image, 21, 34–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trub, L. (2022). The wooing web: Double binds of internet dating. In J. Martinez & Z. A. Kahn (Eds.), Emerging adults in therapy: How to strengthen your clinical competency (pp. 201–219). W. W. Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • US Census. (2016). Mental health disparities: Diverse populations. https://www.psychiatry.org/getmedia/bac9c998-5b2d-4ffa-ace9-d35844b8475a/Mental-Health-Facts-for-Diverse-Populations.pdf

  • Vogels, E. A. (2020). 10 facts about Americans and online dating. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2020/02/06/10-facts-about-americans-and-online-dating/

  • Vogels, E. A. (2021). The state of online harassment. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2021/01/13/the-state-of-online-harassment/

  • Wesche, R., Kreager, D. A., Lefkowitz, E. S., & Siennick, S. E. (2017). Early sexual initiation and mental health: A fleeting association or enduring change? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 27(3), 611–627. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12303

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Widman, L., Golin, C. E., Kamke, K., Burnette, J. L., & Prinstein, M. J. (2018). Sexual assertiveness skills and sexual decision-making in adolescent girls: Randomized controlled trial of an online program. American Journal of Public Health, 108(1), 96–102.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Woertman, L., & Van den Brink, F. (2012). Body image and female sexual functioning and behavior: A review. Journal of Sex Research, 49(2–3), 184–211.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woo, J. S., Brotto, L. A., & Gorzalka, B. B. (2011). The role of sex guilt in the relationship between culture and women’s sexual desire. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(2), 385–394.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (2010). Measuring sexual health: Conceptual and practical considerations and related indicators. Author.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the efforts of the students who contributed to the execution of this study, including: Rashelle Ahokas, Laura Eltahawy, Zach Hubert, Megan Ludwig, and Vendela Parker

Funding

N/A.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychology Department, Pace University, New York, NY, 10038, USA

    Leora R. Trub, Ana Lomidze & Eliana Lopez

  2. Psychology Department, Hunter College of the City University of New York, New York, NY, USA

    J. L. Stewart & Tyrel J. Starks

  3. Division of General Internal Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA

    J. L. Stewart

  4. Health Psychology and Clinical Science Doctoral Program, Graduate Center of the City University of New York, New York, NY, USA

    Tyrel J. Starks

Authors
  1. Leora R. Trub
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. J. L. Stewart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ana Lomidze
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Eliana Lopez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Tyrel J. Starks
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation and data collection were performed by LT, EL and AL. Analyses were performed by TS and JS. The first draft of the manuscript was written by LT and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Leora R. Trub.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

N/A.

Ethical Approval

The study received IRB approval by Pace University.

Informed Consent

All study participants provided informed consent prior to study enrollment.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

The original version of this article was revised: Some changes to the text of this article—such as in the capitalization of words and the level of section headings—were made following its original publication.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Trub, L.R., Stewart, J.L., Lomidze, A. et al. Young Adult Women and Sexual Awareness in the Digital Age: Examining Pathways Linking Online Dating Debut and Mindfulness with Sexual and Mental Health. Arch Sex Behav 52, 2859–2877 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-023-02692-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-023-02692-6

Keyword

search

Navigation