This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Data Availability
Not applicable.
Code Availability
Not applicable.
References
Asal, V., Sommer, U., & Harwood, P. G. (2013). Original sin: A cross-national study of the legality of homosexual acts. Comparative Political Studies, 46(3), 320–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414012453693
Bailey, J. M., & Zucker, K. J. (1995). Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 31(1), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.43
Bao, A.-M., & Swaab, D. F. (2011). Sexual differentiation of the human brain: Relation to gender identity, sexual orientation and neuropsychiatric disorders. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 32(2), 214–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2011.02.007
Blanchard, R. (2018). Fraternal birth order, family size, and male homosexuality: Meta-analysis of studies spanning 25 years. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-1007-4
Bogaert, A. F., & Hershberger, S. (1999). The relation between sexual orientation and penile size. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 28(3), 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018780108597
Bogaert, A. F., Skorska, M. N., Wang, C., Gabrie, J., MacNeil, A. J., Hoffarth, M. R., VanderLaan, D. P., Zucker, K. J., & Blanchard, R. (2018). Male homosexuality and maternal immune responsivity to the Y-linked protein NLGN4Y. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(2), 302–306. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1705895114
Daniele, M., Fasoli, F., Antonio, R., Sulpizio, S., & Maass, A. (2020). Gay voice: Stable marker of sexual orientation or flexible communication device? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(7), 2585–2600. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01771-2
Diamond, L. M. (2016). Sexual fluidity in males and females. Current Sexual Health Reports, 8(4), 249–256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11930-016-0092-z
Gegenhuber, B., Wu, M. V., Bronstein, R., & Tollkuhn, J. (2022). Gene regulation by gonadal hormone receptors underlies brain sex differences. Nature, 606(7912), 153–159. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04686-1
Jabbour, J., Holmes, L., Sylva, D., Hsu, K. J., Semon, T. L., Rosenthal, A. M., Safron, A., Slettevold, E., Watts-Overall, T. M., Savin-Williams, R. C., Sylla, J., Rieger, G., & Bailey, J. M. (2020). Robust evidence for bisexual orientation among men. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(31), 18369–18377. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2003631117
Kenny, C., & Patel, D. (2017). Norms and reform: Legalizing homosexuality improves attitudes. Center for Global Development Working Paper, 465. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3062911
Kushner, H. I. (2013). Why are there (almost) no left-handers in China? Endeavour, 37(2), 71–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.endeavour.2012.12.003
LeVay, S. (1991). A difference in hypothalamic structure between heterosexual and homosexual men. Science, 253(5023), 1034–1037. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1887219
Luoto, S., & Rantala, M. J. (2022). Female bisexuality. In T. Shackelford (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of evolutionary perspectives on sexual psychology (pp. 94–132). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108943581.006
Maki, J. L. (2017). Gay subculture identification: Training counselors to work with gay men. Vistas Online, 22, 1–12.
Marcori, A. J., Monteiro, P. H. M., & Okazaki, V. H. A. (2019). Changing handedness: What can we learn from preference shift studies? Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 107, 313–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.09.019
Mbote, D. K., Sandfort, T. G. M., Waweru, E., & Zapfel, A. (2018). Kenyan religious leaders’ views on same-sex sexuality and gender nonconformity: Religious freedom versus constitutional rights. Journal of Sex Research, 55(4–5), 630–641. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1255702
Meyer-Bahlburg, H. F. L. (1993). Psychobiologic research on homosexuality. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 2(3), 489–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1056-4993(18)30554-6
Monk, J. D., Giglio, E., Kamath, A., Lambert, M. R., & McDonough, C. E. (2019). An alternative hypothesis for the evolution of same-sex sexual behaviour in animals. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 3(12), 1622–1631.
Moshontz, H., Campbell, L., Ebersole, C. R., IJzerman, H., Urry, H. L., Forscher, P. S., Grahe, J. E., McCarthy, R. J., Musser, E. D., Antfolk, J., Castille, C. M., Evans, T. R., Fiedler, S., Flake, J. K., Forero, D. A., Janssen, S. M. J., Keene, J. R., Protzko, J., Aczel, B., & Chartier, C. R. (2018). The Psychological Science Accelerator: Advancing psychology through a distributed collaborative network. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 1(4), 501–515. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245918797607
Moskowitz, D. A., Turrubiates, J., Lozano, H., & Hajek, C. (2013). Physical, behavioral, and psychological traits of gay men identifying as bears. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42(5), 775–784. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0095-z
Nakagawa, S., & Cuthill, I. C. (2007). Effect size, confidence interval and statistical significance: A practical guide for biologists. Biological Reviews, 82(4), 591–605. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.2007.00027.x
Nedoma, K., & Freund, K. (1961). Somatosexuální nálezy u homosexuálních mužů [Somatosexual findings in homosexual men]. Československá Psychiatrie, 57, 100–103.
Nováková, L., Valentova, J., & Havlíček, J. (2013). Olfactory performance is predicted by individual sex-atypicality, but not sexual orientation. PLoS ONE, 8(11), e80234. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0080234
Pereira, K. J., Varella, M. A. C., Kleisner, K., Pavlovič, O., & Valentova, J. V. (2019). Positive association between facial and vocal femininity/masculinity in women but not in men. Behavioural Processes, 164, 25–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2019.04.010
Puckett, J. A., Maroney, M. R., Levitt, H. M., & Horne, S. G. (2016). Relations between gender expression, minority stress, and mental health in cisgender sexual minority women and men. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 3(4), 489–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000201
Rieger, G., Holmes, L., Watts-Overall, T. M., Gruia, D. C., Bailey, J. M., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (2020). Gender nonconformity of bisexual men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(7), 2481–2495. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01766-z
Santtila, P., Sandnabba, N. K., Harlaar, N., Varjonen, M., Alanko, K., & Von der Pahlen, B. (2008). Potential for homosexual response is prevalent and genetic. Biological Psychology, 77(1), 102–105.
Savin-Williams, R. C., & Cohen, K. M. (2018). Prevalence, mental health, and heterogeneity of bisexual men. Current Sexual Health Reports, 10(3), 196–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11930-018-0164-3
Schmitt, D. P. (2005). Sociosexuality from Argentina to Zimbabwe: A 48-nation study of sex, culture, and strategies of human mating. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(2), 247–275. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X05000051
Schmitt, D. P. (2007). Sexual strategies across sexual orientations. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 18(2–3), 183–214. https://doi.org/10.1300/J056v18n02_06
Swaab, D. F., & Hofman, M. A. (1990). An enlarged suprachiasmatic nucleus in homosexual men. Brain Research, 537(1–2), 141–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(90)90350-K
Swift-Gallant, A., Coome, L. A., Aitken, M., Monks, D. A., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2019). Evidence for distinct biodevelopmental influences on male sexual orientation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(26), 12787–12792. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1809920116
Sylva, D., Rieger, G., Linsenmeier, J. A. W., & Bailey, J. M. (2010). Concealment of sexual orientation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39(1), 141–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-008-9466-2
The Jamovi Project. (2022). Jamovi (Version 2.3) [Computer Software]. Retrieved from https://www.jamovi.org
Underwood, S. G. (2012). Gay men and anal eroticism: Tops, bottoms, and versatiles. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203057216
Valentova, J. V., & Varella, M. A. C. (2016a). Further steps toward a truly integrative theory of sexuality [Commentary]. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45(3), 517–520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0630-1
Valentova, J. V., & Varella, M. A. C. (2016b). Sexual orientation and human sexuality. In T. K. Shackelford & V. A. Weekes-Shackelford (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of evolutionary psychological science. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_3622-1
Valentova, J. V., Kleisner, K., Havlíček, J., & Neustupa, J. (2014). Shape differences between the faces of homosexual and heterosexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(2), 353–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0194-x
Valentova, J. V., Medrado, A. T., & Varella, M. A. C. (2022). Male bisexuality. In T. Schackelford (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of evolutionary perspectives on sexual psychology (pp. 52–93). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108943581.005
VanderLaan, D. P., Skorska, M. N., Peragine, D. E., & Coome, L. A. (2022). Carving the biodevelopment of same-sex sexual orientation at its joints. Archives of Sexual Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-022-02360-1
Varella, M., Fernandes, E., Arantes, J., Acquaviva, T., Lucci, T., Hsu, R., David, V., Bussab, V., Valentova, J., Segal, N., & Otta, E. (2019). Twinning as an evolved age-dependent physiological mechanism: evidence from large Brazilian samples. In J. Elito (Ed.), Multiple pregnancy—New challenges. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79907
Wegesin, D. J., & Meyer-Bahlburg, H. F. L. (2000). Top/bottom self-label, anal sex practices, HIV risk and gender role identity in gay men in New York City. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 12(3), 43–62. https://doi.org/10.1300/J056v12n03_03
Weinrich, J. D., & Klein, F. (2002). Bi-gay, bi-straight, and bi–bi: Three bisexual subgroups identified using cluster analysis of the Klein sexual orientation grid. Journal of Bisexuality, 2(4), 109–139. https://doi.org/10.1300/J159v02n04_07
Willoughby, B. L. B., Lai, B. S., Doty, N. D., Mackey, E. R., & Malik, N. M. (2008). Peer crowd affiliations of adult gay men: Linkages with health risk behaviors. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 9(4), 235–247. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.9.4.235
Funding
JF, PF, and JH are supported by the Charles University Grant Agency (No. 282422) and JH is supported by the Charles University Research Centre UNCE 204056.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Manuscript preparation was mostly conceptualized by JVV and JH, and all authors revised and contributed substantially to the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Ethics Approval
This manuscript did not use any data from living subjects and thus did not need ethical approval.
Consent to Participate
Not applicable.
Consent for Publication
Not applicable.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Commentary refers to the article available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-022-02360-1.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Valentova, J.V., Fořt, J., Freudenfeld, P. et al. Different Subgroups of Homosexuality: Great Ideas, Little Evidence, Promising Future. Arch Sex Behav 52, 3013–3018 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-023-02548-z
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-023-02548-z