Abstract
Health disparities persist for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and/or queer (LGBTQ+)-identified people, often shaped by minority stress through anti-LGBTQ+ stigma. Resilience and coping are important for LGBTQ+ people widely, especially through social supports, but further examination is needed into more diverse, expansive mental health assets. Companion animals, or pets, have significant positive mental health benefits in the general population, but more understanding is needed to validate LGBTQ+ people’s lived experiences of minority stress, mental health challenges, and pet-based sources of resilience. We employ the minority resilience framework to ask: What role do pets play in how LGBTQ+ people navigate and cope with stress? This U.S.-based study centers the voices of 45 LGBTQ+ people’s qualitative interview narratives characterizing the diverse coping and resilience-building processes they develop through pet relationships. Findings demonstrate diverse processes surrounding pets as contributing to resilience, as participants emphasized the unique beneficial emotional connections pets provided. Second, pet family members were conceptualized as vital sources of support that promoted thriving. Finally, pet relationships fostered happiness and life enjoyment that augmented participants’ life satisfaction. This study delineates more diverse understandings of how LGBTQ+ people manage stress through their pet relationships, which can provide vital information to service providers and policymakers in more holistically attending to marginalized communities’ health needs.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahmed, S. (2010). The promise of happiness. Duke University Press.
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA). (2019). Definition of companion animal. Retrieved September 4, 2019 from https://www.aspca.org/about-us/aspca-policy-and-position-statements/definition-companion-animal
American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA). (2018). AVMA pet ownership and demographics sourcebook. Retrieved September 24, 2020 from https://ebusiness.avma.org/ProductCatalog/product.aspx?ID=1529
Badgett, M. L., Choi, S. K., & Wilson, B. D. (2019). LGBT poverty in the United States. The Williams Institute and American Foundation for Suicide.
Boyatzis, R. E. (1998). Transforming qualitative information: Thematic analysis and code development. Sage.
Brooks, H. L., Rushton, K., Lovell, K., Bee, P., Walker, L., Grant, L., & Rogers, A. (2018). The power of support from companion animals for people living with mental health problems: A systematic review and narrative synthesis of the evidence. BMC Psychiatry, 18(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1613-2
Bryan, J. L., Quist, M. C., Young, C. M., Steers, M.-L.N., Foster, D. W., & Lu, Q. (2014). Canine comfort: Pet affinity buffers the negative impact of ambivalence over emotional expression on perceived social support. Personality and Individual Differences, 68, 23–27.
Charmaz, K., & Belgrave, L. (2012). Qualitative interviewing and grounded theory analysis. The SAGE handbook of interview research: The complexity of the craft, 2, 347–365.
Colpitts, E., & Gahagan, J. (2016). The utility of resilience as a conceptual framework for understanding and measuring LGBTQ health. International Journal for Equity in Health, 15(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-016-0349-1
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage Publications.
Daniel, H., & Butkus, R. (2015). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender health disparities: Executive summary of a policy position paper from the American College of Physicians. Annals of Internal Medicine, 163(2), 135–137.
Everett, B. (2015). Sexual orientation identity change and depressive symptoms: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 56(1), 37–58.
Ferretti, L. K., & Bub, K. L. (2014). The influence of family routines on the resilience of low-income preschoolers. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35(3), 168–180.
Fraser, H., Bartholomaeus, C., Riggs, D. W., Taylor, N., & Rosenberg, S. (2020). Service provider recognition of the significance of animal companionship among trans and cisgender women of diverse sexualities. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 22(1), 16–30.
Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I., Simoni, J. M., Kim, H.-J., Lehavot, K., Walters, K. L., Yang, J., Hoy-Ellis, C. P., & Muraco, A. (2014). The health equity promotion model: Reconceptualization of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) health disparities. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84(6), 653–663.
Friedmann, E. (2013). The role of pets in enhancing human well-being: Physiological effects. In I. Robinson (Ed.), The Waltham book of human-animal interaction: Benefits and responsibilities of pet ownership (pp. 33–54). Pergamon.
Friedmann, E., Barker, S. B., & Allen, K. M. (2011). Physiological correlates of health benefits from pets. In P. McCardle, S. McCune, J. A. Griffin, & V. Maholmes (Eds.), How animals affect us: Examining the influences of human–animal interaction on child development and human health (pp. 163–182). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12301-009
Frost, D. M., & Meyer, I. H. (2012). Measuring community connectedness among diverse sexual minority populations. Journal of Sex Research, 49(1), 36–49.
Grandgeorge, M., Tordjman, S., Lazartigues, A., Lemonnier, E., Deleau, M., & Hausberger, M. (2012). Does pet arrival trigger prosocial behaviors in individuals with autism? PLoS ONE, 7(8), e41739. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0041739
Hale, C. J., Hannum, J. W., & Espelage, D. L. (2005). Social support and physical health: The importance of belonging. Journal of American College Health, 53(6), 276–284.
Hartwig, E. K., & Smelser, Q. K. (2018). Practitioner perspectives on animal-assisted counseling. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 40(1), 43–57.
Hawkins, R. D., Hawkins, E. L., & Tip, L. (2021). “I can’t give up when i have them to care for”: People’s experiences of pets and their mental health. Anthrozoös, 34, 547–562. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2021.1914434
Hayden-Evans, M., Milbourn, B., & Netto, J. (2018). ‘Pets provide meaning and purpose’: A qualitative study of pet ownership from the perspectives of people diagnosed with borderline personality disorder. Advances in Mental Health, 16(2), 152–162.
Headey, B., & Grabka, M. (2011). Health correlates of pet ownership from national surveys. In P. McCardle, S. McCune, J. A. Griffin, & V. Maholmes (Eds.), How animals affect us: Examining the influences of human–animal interaction on child development and human health (pp. 153–162). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12301-008
Herzog, H. (2011). The impact of pets on human health and psychological well-being: Fact, fiction, or hypothesis? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(4), 236–239.
Irvine, L. (2013). Animals as lifechangers and lifesavers: Pets in the redemption narratives of homeless people. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 42(1), 3–30.
Jakubiak, B. K., & Feeney, B. C. (2016). A sense of security: Touch promotes state attachment security. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7(7), 745–753.
Janevic, M., Solway, E., Malani, P., Kirch, M., Kullgren, J., & Connell, C. (2019). National poll on healthy aging: How pets contribute to healthy aging. Retrieved from https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/148428/NPHA_Pets-Report_FINAL-040319.pdf
Knight, S., & Edwards, V. (2008). In the company of wolves: The physical, social, and psychological benefits of dog ownership. Journal of Aging and Health, 20(4), 437–455.
Koerner, S. S., Kenyon, D. B., & Shirai, Y. (2009). Caregiving for elder relatives: Which caregivers experience personal benefits/gains? Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 48(2), 238–245.
Lachman, M. E., & Weaver, S. L. (1998). The sense of control as a moderator of social class differences in health and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 763–773.
Lehavot, K., & Simoni, J. M. (2011). The impact of minority stress on mental health and substance use among sexual minority women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(2), 159–170.
McConnell, A. R., Paige Lloyd, E., & Humphrey, B. T. (2019). We are family: Viewing pets as family members improves wellbeing. Anthrozoös, 32(4), 459–470.
McConnell, E. A., Birkett, M. A., & Mustanski, B. (2015). Typologies of social support and associations with mental health outcomes among LGBT youth. LGBT Health, 2(1), 55–61.
McConnell, E. A., Janulis, P., Phillips, G., II., Truong, R., & Birkett, M. (2018). Multiple minority stress and LGBT community resilience among sexual minority men. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 5(1), 1–12.
McKeithen, W. (2017). Queer ecologies of home: Heteronormativity, speciesism, and the strange intimacies of crazy cat ladies. Gender, Place & Culture, 24(1), 122–134.
Meehan, M., Massavelli, B., & Pachana, N. (2017). Using attachment theory and social support theory to examine and measure pets as sources of social support and attachment figures. Anthrozoös, 30(2), 273–289.
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697.
Meyer, I. H. (2015). Resilience in the study of minority stress and health of sexual and gender minorities. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2(3), 209–213.
Miltiades, H., & Shearer, J. (2011). Attachment to pet dogs and depression in rural older adults. Anthrozoös, 24(2), 147–154.
Mueller, M. K., & Callina, K. S. (2014). Human–animal interaction as a context for thriving and coping in military-connected youth: The role of pets during deployment. Applied Developmental Science, 18(4), 214–223.
Müllersdorf, M., Granström, F., Sahlqvist, L., & Tillgren, P. (2010). Aspects of health, physical/leisure activities, work and socio-demographics associated with pet ownership in Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 38(1), 53–63.
Muraco, A., Putney, J., Shiu, C., & Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I. (2018). Lifesaving in every way: The role of companion animals in the lives of older lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adults age 50 and over. Research on Aging, 40(9), 859–882.
Newport, F. (2021). American public opinion and the Equality Act. https://news.gallup.com/opinion/polling-matters/340349/american-public-opinion-equality-act.aspx.
Padgett, D. K. (2017). Qualitative methods in social work research. Sage Publications.
Perrin, P. B., Sutter, M. E., Trujillo, M. A., Henry, R. S., & Pugh, M., Jr. (2020). The minority strengths model: Development and initial path analytic validation in racially/ethnically diverse LGBTQ individuals. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 76(1), 118–136.
Putney, J. M. (2014). Older lesbian adults’ psychological well-being: The significance of pets. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 26(1), 1–17.
Ramirez, M. (2006). “My dog’s just like me”: Dog ownership as a gender display. Symbolic Interaction, 29(3), 373–391.
Risley-Curtiss, C. (2010). Social work practitioners and the human companion animal bond: A national study. Social Work, 55(1), 38–46.
Risley-Curtiss, C., Holley, L. C., & Wolf, S. (2006). The animal-human bond and ethnic diversity. Social Work, 51(3), 257–268.
Rogers-Jarrell, T., Eswaran, A., & Meisner, B. A. (2021). Extend an embrace: The availability of hugs is an associate of higher self-rated health in later life. Research on Aging, 43, 227–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027520958698
Rose, D., McMillian, C., & Carter, O. (2020). Pet-friendly rental housing: Racial and spatial inequalities. Space and Culture. https://doi.org/10.1177/1206331220956539
Rosenberg, S., Riggs, D. W., Taylor, N., & Fraser, H. (2020). ‘Being together really helped’: Australian transgender and non-binary people and their animal companions living through violence and marginalisation. Journal of Sociology, 56(4), 571–590.
Saldaña, J. (2015). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Sage.
Schmitz, R. M., Carlisle, Z. T., & Tabler, J. (2021). “Companion, friend, four-legged fluff ball”: The power of pets in the lives of LGBTQ+ young people experiencing homelessness. Sexualities. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460720986908
Schmitz, R. M., & Tyler, K. A. (2018). Contextual constraints and choices: Strategic identity management among LGBTQ youth. Journal of LGBT Youth, 15(3), 212–226.
Schmitz, R. M., & Tyler, K. A. (2019). ‘Life has actually become more clear’: An examination of resilience among LGBTQ young adults. Sexualities, 22(4), 710–733.
Snapp, S. D., Watson, R. J., Russell, S. T., Diaz, R. M., & Ryan, C. (2015). Social support networks for LGBT young adults: Low cost strategies for positive adjustment. Family Relations, 64(3), 420–430.
Tabler, J., Geist, C., Schmitz, R. M., & Nagata, J. M. (2019). Does it get better? Change in depressive symptoms from late-adolescence to early-adulthood, disordered eating behaviors, and sexual identity. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 23(2), 221–243.
Tabler, J., Mykyta, L., Schmitz, R. M., Kamimura, A., Martinez, D. A., Martinez, R. D., Flores, P., Gonzalez, K., Marquez, A., & Marroquin, G. (2021). Getting by with a little help from our friends: The role of social support in addressing HIV-related mental health disparities among sexual minorities in the lower Rio Grande Valley. Journal of Homosexuality, 68, 269–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2019.1651112
Taylor, N., Riggs, D. W., Donovan, C., Signal, T., & Fraser, H. (2019). People of diverse genders and/or sexualities caring for and protecting animal companions in the context of domestic violence. Violence against Women, 25(9), 1096–1115.
Testa, R. J., Habarth, J., Peta, J., Balsam, K., & Bockting, W. (2015). Development of the gender minority stress and resilience measure. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2(1), 65–77.
Thomas, R., & Matusitz, J. (2016). Pet therapy in correctional institutions: A perspective from relational-cultural theory. Journal of Evidence-Informed Social Work, 13(2), 228–235.
Tissot, S. (2011). Of dogs and men: The making of spatial boundaries in a gentrifying neighborhood. City & Community, 10(3), 265–284.
Valdiserri, R. O., Holtgrave, D. R., Poteat, T. C., & Beyrer, C. (2019). Unraveling health disparities among sexual and gender minorities: A commentary on the persistent impact of stigma. Journal of Homosexuality, 66(5), 571–589.
Ward, B. W., Dahlhamer, J. M., Galinsky, A. M., & Joestl, S. S. (2014). Sexual orientation and health among US adults: National Health Interview Survey, 2013. National Health Statistics Reports No. 77. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/24087
Wells, D. L. (2009). The effects of animals on human health and well-being. Journal of Social Issues, 65(3), 523–543.
Wood, L., Giles-Corti, B., & Bulsara, M. (2005). The pet connection: Pets as a conduit for social capital? Social Science & Medicine, 61(6), 1159–1173.
Acknowledgements
The authors dedicate this work to the LGBTQ+ people and their lovely companion animal family members whose stories inspired this research.
Funding
This research was funded by the College of Liberal Arts at Oklahoma State University.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study and manuscript preparation commensurate with authorship order.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors report no conflicts of interest.
Ethical Approval
The university institutional review board (AS-19-74) approved this study.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Schmitz, R.M., Tabler, J., Carlisle, Z.T. et al. LGBTQ+ People’s Mental Health and Pets: Novel Strategies of Coping and Resilience. Arch Sex Behav 50, 3065–3077 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-02105-6
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-02105-6