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A Retrospective Study of Childhood Sex-Typed Behavior in Istmo Zapotec Men, Women, and Muxes

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Abstract

Previous research has consistently demonstrated that both transgender and cisgender androphilic males (i.e., males attracted to adult males) display and recall higher levels of childhood female-typical behavior (CFTB) and lower levels of childhood male-typical behavior (CMTB) compared to gynephilic males (i.e., males attracted to adult females). In adulthood, the recalled CFTB and CMTB scores of cisgender androphilic males tend to be intermediate to those of opposite-sex-attracted men and women, whereas transgender androphilic males tend to score similar to women. These studies have been mostly conducted in Euro-American cultures. We examined recalled childhood sex-typed behavior (CSTB) among the Istmo Zapotec—a pre-Colombian culture in the Istmo region of Oaxaca, Mexico, where cisgender and transgender androphilic males are recognized as a third gender, known locally as muxes. The present study sought to determine whether Istmo Zapotec men (n = 180), cisgender muxe nguiiu (n = 63), transgender muxe gunaa (n = 120), and women (n = 138) differ with respect to recalled CFTB and CMTB. Our results indicate that men recalled significantly less CFTB and more CMTB than women. Cisgender muxes scored in between men and women. Transgender muxes scored similar to women. These findings provide further evidence that childhood sex-atypical behavior is a cross-culturally universal and normative developmental aspect of male androphilia, regardless of whether it manifests in the cisgender or transgender form. This is the first study to present quantitative data comparing the recalled CSTB of cisgender and transgender androphilic males from within the same non-Euro-American culture.

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Fig. 1

Notes

  1. Cisgender refers to individuals whose gender identity match the one they were assigned at birth.

  2. Transgender refers to individuals whose gender identity differs from the one they were assigned as birth.

  3. Research by Lucien von Römer in the Netherlands in 1901 and by Magnus Hirschfeld in Germany in 1903 and 1904 indicates that these portions have remained stable for more than a century (reviewed in Leser, 1961).

  4. The Istmo region of Oaxaca consists of two districts: Tehuantepec and Juchitán.

  5. Prieur (1998) explains that “the word mayate originated as the name of the scarab beetle which makes a ball out of dung, lays its eggs in it, and then pushes the ball in front of itself using its snout. This reflects the expectation that mayates are supposed to be the active party during anal intercourse” (p. 27).

  6. Effect sizes are presented using Cohen’s d statistics and their 95% confidence intervals.

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Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Dan Weeks, as well as Julio Cesar Jiménez Rodríguez and Felina Santiago, without whom this research would not be possible. We also wish to thank the local authorities of Juchitán de Zaragoza for granting us permission to conduct or research.

Funding

This study was funded by a University of Lethbridge Research Fund Grant (Institutional Grant No. 13261) and a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada Insight Grant (Institutional Grant No. 41182).

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  1. Department of Psychology, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4, Canada

    Francisco R. Gómez Jiménez & Paul L. Vasey

  2. GIGA Neurosciences, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium

    Lucas Court

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Gómez Jiménez, F.R., Court, L. & Vasey, P.L. A Retrospective Study of Childhood Sex-Typed Behavior in Istmo Zapotec Men, Women, and Muxes. Arch Sex Behav 49, 467–477 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01544-6

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